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P 


STREET  OF  BAGDAD 


LIFE 

IN  THE 

MOSLEM  EAST 


BY 


IMPERIAL  RUSSIAN  CONSUL  GENERAL  IN  CONSTANTINOPLE 

FORMERLY  OCCUPYING  SIMILAR  POSITIONS  IN  VARIOUS 

PARTS  OF  PERSIA  AND  TURKEY 

Translated  from  the  Russian  by 
EMMA  COCHRAN  PONAFIDINE 

NUMEROUS  ILLUSTRATIONS 

H 


NEW  YORK 

DODD,  MEAD  AND  COMPANY 
1911 


COPYRIGHT,  1911,  BY 
DODD,  MEAD  AND  COMPANY 

Publishfd,  October,  1911 

All  rights  of  translation  into  foreign  languages 
are  reserved,  including  Scandinavian 


To  our  dear  Friend 
STEPHEN  M.  CLEMENT 

A  tribute  of  Jove  and 
sincere  esteem 


271633 


TRANSLATOR'S   PREFACE 

IT  is  with  much  diffidence  that  I  give  the  translation  of 
my  husband's  book  to  the  English-speaking  public,  and  I 
hope  they  will  deal  leniently  with  my  share  of  the  work. 
The  book  itself  I  feel  needs  no  apology.  It  is  not  a 
pretentious  history,  nor  an  exhaustive  treatise  on  the 
countries  upon  which  it  touches.  It  is  more  a  series  of 
studies  of  certain  phases  of  the  life,  religion  and  customs 
of  people  among  whom  my  husband  has  passed  the 
thirty-six  years  of  his  service,  people  for  whom  he 
has  learned  to  have  a  deep  sympathy,  and  often  affection, 
and  whom  he  has  striven  to  present  impartially. 

The  fact  of  his  having  been  for  some  years  Secretary 
of  Legation  in  Teheran,  acting  Consul  General  in  Tabriz, 
five  years  Consul  in  Bagdad,  five  years  Consul  General 
in  Meshed,  two  years  on  a  special  mission  to  Tashkent 
and  the  Pamirs,  and  for  the  last  seven  years  Consul  Gen- 
eral in  Constantinople  is  a  guarantee  for  his  personal  ac- 
quaintance with  the  subjects  treated. 

It  is  the  English  part  of  the  work  that  calls  forth 
these  lines,  for  it  has  been  done  under  various  difficuties. 
Being  my  first  attempt  in  translating  I  have  not  always 
found  it  easy  to  preserve  as  I  have  endeavoured  to  do, 
something  of  the  style  and  individuality  of  the  author  in 
the  original,  and  yet  render  it  in  good  English. 

A  second  difficulty  is  one  always  met  with  in  such 
works,  and  that  is,  the  English  spelling  of  Oriental 
names.  In  dealing  with  this  problem  I  have  followed 
such  writers  as  have  seemed  to  me  to  give  the  most  cor- 
rect rendering  of  Eastern  names  and  words,  even  though 
they  are  not  always  the  most  popularly  accepted  forms. 


PREFACE 

The  third  difficulty,  and  perhaps  the  most  serious  one, 
has  been  in  the  distance  from  the  publishers,  which  has 
made  it  impossible  for  me  to  correct  the  proofs. 

In  conclusion  I  would  add  that  we  feel  that  it  is  our 
duty  as  well  as  pleasure  to  express  our  sincerest  thanks 
to  our  friends,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Hugh  Edward  Poynter, 
for  their  warm  interest  and  help,  without  which  I  doubt 
if  I  should  have  had  the  courage  to  undertake  the  trans- 
lation. 

Constantinople,  May  ist,  1910. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTEl  PAGE 

I.  IN  BAGDAD     .     ,.•    .     ....     .     ,.,    ,.,    ,..    r.-    ;.     .      3 

Serdabs — Means  of  Navigation  on  the  Tigris — Past  and 
Present  Bagdad — Inhabitants — The  Tomb  of  Zobeida — 
Mosques  of  Ab'dul  Kadir,  Ahmed  Heaeh  and  Sauk-el-Gazele 
— Kazmain — Mosque  of  Imam  Musa — Life  in  Bagdad,  its 
Peculiarities — Nomads — Amusements—Buffaloes — Snakes — 
Bagdad  Nights — Unpleasant  Neighbours — Dervishes  and  their 
Orders — Orders  of  Rufai  and  Mevlevie — Begging  Dervishes 
— What  are  the  Conditions  of  the  Existence  of  Dervishes — 
Initiation — Miraculous  Powers  of  the  Sheikhs— Travelling 
Dervishes — Kalandars. 

II.  MESOPOTAMIA,  THE  PORTALS  OF  THE  DESERT    ....    23 

Desert  Politics — Our  Caravan — Goanese — Mendoza  and 
Fernando — Hamdanie  and  Seglawie — Character  of  Meso- 
potamia— Nefuds — Duradji — Ceremony  of  Meetings  in  the 
Desert — In  Camp — Original  Adventures  of  Turks  with 
Arabs — Ancient  Canals — Duradj  Shooting — At  the  Wells — 
First  Acquaintance  with  the  Daughters  of  the  Desert — The 
Disappearance  of  Ahmed — His  Reappearance — Unexpected 
Results  of  Medical  Treatment — Blood  Feuds. 

III.  THE  RUINS  OF  BABYLON  AND  AMONG  THE  KURDS  AND 

YEZIDIS 42 

Hillah,  its  Population — Cuneiform  Tablets — Ruins  of  Baby- 
lon— The  Work  of  Turning  the  Euphrates — Ruins  of  Nimrod 
or  Aker  Rouff— Kurds  in  the  Himrin  Mountains— Charac- 
ter of  Kurds — Invasion  of  Urumiah  by  Sheikh  Obeidullah — 
Yezidis — Devil  Worshippers — Sect  of  Ali  Allahis. 

IV.  EPIDEMICS  IN  BAGDAD .58 

The  Plague  Epidemics  of  the  Nineteenth  Century — The 
Diary  of  a  French  Consul — Historical  Route  of  Epidemics 
— A  Dinner  Spoiled  by  Dread  Tidings— Appearance  of 


VI 

CHAPTEB  PAGB 

Cholera  in  Bagdad — Population  Flees — Life  in  the  Desert — 
Arabs  Attack  Us — Punishment  of  Prisoners — Return  to  Town 
— The  Further  Progress  of  the  Epidemic — The  Plague  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century  in  Constantinople  Described  by  an  Eye- 
witness— Symptoms — Measure  of  Prevention — Treatment — 
Depopulation  Caused  by  Plague — Its  Periodical  Appearance 
— Fanaticism  One  of  the  Chief  Causes  Making  it  Impossible  to 
Fight  Epidemics. 

V.  SUNNITES  AND  SHIITES,  AND  THE   RELICS   OF  THE  PROPHET      74 

Division  of  Moslem  World  into  Two  Factions — The  Koran 
the  Foundation  of  Islamism — Views  Regarding  Paradise  and 
Hell — Chief  Factors  towards  Obtaining  Paradise:  Prayers, 
Fasts,  Pilgrimages  to  Holy  Places,  Alms,  Sacred  Wars — Teach- 
ings Regarding  Pure  and  Impure — Ablutions — Daily  and 
Special  Prayers — Fasts — What  are  Sunnites  and  Shiites? — 
Original  Cause  of  the  Division — Twelve  Shiite  Imams — 
Imam  Mehdi — Mudjtaheids — Their  Importance  Among  the 
Shiites — Shiite  Hatred  of  Abu-Bekr,  Omar  and  Osman — 
Result  of  Split  in  the  Mohammedan  Religion — Religious 
Wars — Letter  of  Selim  I.  to  Shah  Ismael — The  Passing  of 
the  Moslem  Holy  Places  from  Shiites  to  Sunnites — The  Per- 
sian Sacred  Banner — The  Sacred  Banner  of  the  Kor — The 
Origin  of  the  Prophet's  Sacred  Banner — Its  Passing  into  the 
Possession  of  the  Turkish  Sultan — The  Significance  of  Sacred 
Banners — Sacred  Garments  and  their  Origin — Ceremony  of 
15  Ramadan — Two  Holy  Teeth — Holy  Beard — Mysterious 
Appearance  in  Various  Parts  of  the  Mohammedan  World  of 
Hair  Significance  of  these  Relics — Inferior  Relics. 

VI.  PILGRIMAGES   AND  CARRYING   OF   BODIES   TO  THE   HOLY 

PLACES  OF  THE  SHIITES  IN  TURKEY 97 

Pilgrimages  Obligatory  to  Moslems — Places  of  Worship 
Common  to  Both  Sunnites  and  Shiites — Titles  of  Meshedi, 
Kerbeli  and  Hadji — The  Mohammedan  Calendar — Lunar 
and  Solar  Years — Names  of  Lunar  Months  and  their  De- 
rivations— Formula  for  Transposing  Moslem  and  Christian 
Eras — Pilgrimages  of  Caucasians  and  Persians  to  Holy  Places 


CONTENTS  vii 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Found  in  Turkey — Unexpected  Discovery  Made  by  a  Physi- 
cian— Contraband  Caravanserai — Suburb  of  Kerbela — 
Ancient  Canals — City  of  Kerbela,  Population  and  Profes- 
sions— Torbas — Revenues — Treasures  of  Kerbela  Nedjef — 
Mudjtaheids — Occupation  of  Inhabitants — Cities  of  Cufa 
and  Samara — Hadji  Mirza  Hassan,  Most  Popular  Persian 
Mudjtaheid — His  Part  in  the  Abolishment  of  the  Tobacco 
Monopoly  in  Persia. 

VII.  ARABIA,  NEJD  AND  THE  WAHABEES     .     .     .     .     .     .113 

The  Camel  and  its  Significance  in  the  Life  of  the  Bedouin 

— Arabia  Geographically — Bible  Life  as  Seen  at  the  Pres- 
ent Time — Limits  of  Territory  Occupied  by  Nomadic  Arabs 
— Hadramuth — The  Great  Desert — Oman,  El  Hassa,  Nejd 
and  the  Nefuds — Cause  of  Isolation  of  Nejd — Character 
of  Nefuds — Red  Locusts  and  Samkh  as  Principal  Diet  of  the 
Bedouin  and  His  Horse — Travellers  Who  Have  Visited 
Nejd — Wahabees  and  Wahabeeism — The  Wahabee  Kingdom 
— Occupation  of  the  Hedjaz,  Mecca,  and  Medina  by  Waha- 
bees— Pillaging  the  Kerbela  Mosque — Raids  on  Damascus — 
Expedition  of  Mehmed  Ali  Pasha  and  Ibrahim  Pasha — Occu- 
pation of  Nejd  by  Egyptian  Forces — Fall  of  Wahabeeism 
— Struggle  for  Supremacy — Ibn-al-Rashid — His  Popularity — 
Hayil — Abuse  of  Pilgrims — Climate  of  Nejd — Slavery — Nejd 
the  Cradle  of  the  Arabs — Mesopotamia — El  Jezira — El  Irak 
— Shamiya — Suffering  in  Years  of  Drought — Importance  of 
the  Camel  in  the  Bedouin's  Life — Pacing  Camels — One- 
humped  and  Two-humped  Camels — Examples  of  Endurance 
— Shortcomings  of  Camels — Examples  of  Camels'  Vengeance. 

VIII.  BEDOUINS 1301 

What  are  Bedouins,  Hidkaris  and  Fellaheen? — Gradations 
between  their  Tribes,  Sub-tribes  and  Families — Care  in 
Preserving  Pureness  of  Blood — Sheikhs,  their  Significance, 
Powers  and  Duties — Customs — Religion — Abstinence  of 
Bedouins  and  its  Cause — Early  Hardships — Marriage — 
Polygamy — Divorce — On  what  Bedouins  Exist — Hunting 
with  Hounds  and  Falcons — Sheep  Raising — Raids — Sheep 


viii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAG5 

Lifting — Ghazus — Blood  Feuds — The  Bedouin  in  Poetry  arid 
in  Reality — Explanation  of  Hospitality  of  Bedouins.  Their 
Idea  Concerning  Muscovites — Four  Seasons  of  the  Bedouin 
Year — Spring — Migration,  or  "  Rahla  " — Order  of  March — 
Camping — Dry  Milk  as  Onq  of  the  Chief  Items  of  Bedouins' 
Diet — Their  Period  of  Hunger — Bedouin's  Day — What  They 
Eat  During  Famine  Period — Lack  of  Water — Diseases — 
Sacrifices,  or  "  Kurban  " — Arrival  of  Guests — Justice — Posi- 
tion of  Women. 

IX.  THE  ARAB  HORSE  IN  ITS  NATIVE  LAND     .     .     .     .     .  153 
Horses  of  Arab  Descent  in  Europe  and  Asia — Why  Arabia 
Produces   the  Finest   Horses   in   the  World — The    Horse's 
Power  of  Adapting  Itself  to  its  Food — Points  of  a  Bedouin's 
Horse — Limitation — Impossibility  of   Buying   Thoroughbred 
Mares — Proverbs — Mares  Owned  in  Shares — The  Natural 
Condition  of  a  Horse's  Life — The  Origin  of  the  Arab  Horse 

— Are  there  Many  Thoroughbred  Arab  Horses  in  Arabia? — 
Subdivisions  of  Breeds — Examples  of  the  Bedouin's  Estimation 
of  His  Horse's  Genealogy — "  Shammarie,"  the  Pearl  of  the 
Desert — Hunting  the  Wild  Ass — Our  Wild  Ass  in  Meshed — 
Endurance  of  the  Arab  Horse — The  Bedouin  as  a  Rider — 
Colour  of  Horses — Points — Defects — Length  of  Horse  Life 
— Bedouins'  Treatment  of  the  Horse — Our  Arab  Horses  in 
Bagdad — Hamdanie,  Seglawie  and  Rishan — Personal  Obser- 
vations. 

X.  FROM  BAGDAD  TO  BASSORAH     .     ,.•    .     .     .     .     .     .     .  174 

"Califah" — Bagdad  Filters  and  Water  Coolers — Ruins  of 
Ctesiphon  and  Seleucia — Suleiman  Pak — Kut-el-Amara — The 
Shatt-el-Hai  Canal — Lions  in  Mesopotamia  and  Persia — How 
Persians  and  Arabs  Meet  Lions — An  Unexpected  Lion  Hunt 
— Sand-Storms — Kurna — Tree  of  Knowledge  of  Good  and 
Evil — Tomb  of  Ezra — Palm  Groves — Importance  of  Palm 
Tree — Palm  Cultivation — Artificial  Fertilisation — Varieties  of 
Dates. 

XL  FROM   BASSORAH    TO   MUSCAT    . 190 

The  Date  Harvest — Cherdaks — Dates  as  an  Item  of  Export 


CONTENTS  ix 

CHAPTES  PAGE 

— Sabiehs  or  Sabians,  Followers  of  John  the  Baptist — New 
and  Old  Bassorah — S.  S.  "Kilwa" — Mohammerah — Karun 
Behmishahr — On  the  Bar — Somali  Fight — Bushire  Shark 
Fishing — Bender-Abbas — Hardships  of  the  Persian  Gulf — 
Dominions  of  the  Sultan  of  Oman — Muscat — Occupation  of 
the  Inhabitants  of  Muscat — English  Gunboats — Commerce — » 
Climate — Muscat  Lion. 

XII.  BOMBAY,  CASTES,  AND  THE  TOWERS  OF  SILENCE     .     .  207 
Bombay,    its    Significance — Variety    of    Nationalities — From 

the  "  Slavansky  Bazaar "  to  Watson's  Hotel — History  and 
Development  of  Caste — Laws  of  Manu — Principle  of  Pre- 
serving Race  of  the  Conquerors  Distinct — Marriages — 
Caste  as  Seen  To-day,  and  its  Effect  on  Daily  Life — Eng- 
lish Feeling  of  Caste  towards  Natives — History  of  Bom- 
bay— Parsis — Similarity  of  Russian  and  Indian  Styles  of 
Architecture — Personal  Reminiscences — Tower  of  Silence 
— My  Acquaintance  with  Parsis — Baku  and  the  Eternal 
Fire — Zoroaster,  His  Teaching — Zend  Avesta — Traces  of 
Zoroastrianism  in  the  Persian  Religion — Gabars,  their  Former 
and  Present  State  in  Persia — "  Mobeds,"  "Andjuman" — 
Rites  and  Ceremonials — Shah  Abdul  Azim  near  Teheran — 
Ruins  of  Rei  and  Tower  of  Silence. 

XIII.  THUGS  IN  INDIA     .     .     .     .     .    -.,    .    ..*    ..,    ,.,    ,.  224; 
India  Past  and  Present — Secret  Sects — Mutual  Relations  of 

the  Conquerors  and  Conquered — Hickley,  Hutton  arid  Colonel 
Meadows-Taylor — Two  Opinions  Concerning  Thugs — Con- 
dition of  India  in  First  Half  of  Nineteenth  Century — Period 
of  Disorder  and  Oppression — Trials  by  Ordeals — Formation 
of  Bands  of  Robbers — Pindarees — Gussoons — Methods  of 
Travelling — Thugs  as  Companions  on  the  March — Doctrine 
of  Thugs — Brahma,  Vishnu  and  Siva — Goddesses — Bhow- 
anee,  or  Kali — Initiation  of  Thugs,  their  Duties — Thank-Of- 
ferings— Division  of  Work  among  Bands — Inveiglers,  Stran- 
glers,  Grave-Diggers — Thug  Methods  of  Working — First 
Intimation  of  Thugs  in  1810 — Trial  of  1812 — Expedition 
against  Thugs — Commission  Formed  in  1830  to  Investigate 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Accusations  Brought  against  Thugs — Conclusion  of  Commis- 
sion and  Result  of  its  Work — From  Bombay  to  Jiddah — 
Perim — Circumstances  Connected  with  Annexation  of  Perim 
— Aden. 

XIV.  MECCA,  THE  MOSLEM'S  PALESTINE     ......  246 

Pilgrimages  and  their  Significance — The  Supremacy  of  Mecca 
as  a  Sacred  Spot — Christian  Travellers  Who  Have  Visited 
Mecca — Ancient  Cult  of  the  Kaaba — Cause  of  Accepting  Such 
a  Cult — Mohammed's  View  of  Pilgrimages  to  Mecca — 
Foundation  of  Mecca  and  the  Kaaba — Stone  of  Abraham 
— Divine  Origin  of  the  "  Black  Stone  " — Spring  of  "  Zem 
Zem  " — Golden  Water  Trough — Sacred  Places  Situated 
near  the  Kaaba — Conditions  under  which  Pilgrimages  May  be 
Made — Pilgrimages  of  Women  and  by  Proxy — Appearance 
of  Hadj — "  Ihram " — Day  of  Doubt,  Day  of  Knowledge, 
Day  of  Sacrifice — Rites  Connected  with  these  Days — Mena, 
Arafat — Stoning  the  Devil — Fete  of  Kurban  Bairam — Day 
of  Drying  Meat  in  the  Sun — Why  Mohammedans  are  Ad- 
vised to  Leave  Mecca  upon  the  Completion  of  their  Obliga- 
tory Rites — Population  of  Mecca — Causes  of  Mortality  among 
Pilgrims — Sanitary  Condition  of  Mecca  during  the  Hadj  of 
1907 — Prevalent  Diseases  and  their  Causes — Unfavourable 
Conditions  for  Carrying  Bodies  by  Sea — Quarantines. 

XV.  PILGRIMAGES  TO  MEDINA  .,  ,.  ,.  .  -.,  .  .  .  .  269 
Boundary  of  Holy  Lan'd — Tribes  of  Medina — Water  Supply 
— Date  Palms — Last  Years  of  Mohammed's  Life — His  Pil- 
grimage to  Mecca — Sermon  from  Mount  Arafat — Return 
to  Medina — Rivals — Illness — Last  Testament — Last  Attend- 
ance at  the  Mosque — Absence  of  Direct  Male  Heirs — 
Favourite  Wives — Their  Influence — Property  Left  by  Mo- 
hammed— The  Sword  of  the  Prophet  and  its  History — 
Tomb  of  the  Prophet — Abu-Bekr,  Omar  and  Others — Muz- 
zawir — Mosque  of  Kuba — Cemetery  of  El  Bakia — Other 
Mosques — Forced  Worship  at  Omar's  Tomb — Staff  of  the 
Mosque — Eunuchs — Slave  Trade — Inhabitants  of  Medina — 
Shereefs  and  Sayids — The  Damascus  Caravan — Its  Historical 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTEH  PAGE 

Origin — Surrie  Emini — Ceremony  of  Start  from  Constanti- 
nople— Sacred  Camel — Mahmal — Gathering  of  Pilgrims  in 
Damascus — General  Character  of  Route — Akiam,  Sakkas, 
Muhafez — Stages — Sanitary  Conditions — Order  of  March 
— Tent  Pitching — Appearance  of  Camp,  Food  of  Pilgrims — 
Water — Martyrs  or  Shahudies — Caravan  During  Epidemics 
— Robberies  by  Bedouins  and  Their  Causes — Road  between 
Mecca  and  Medina — Mutual  Relations  of  Bedouins — Kharbi 
— The  Hedjaz  Railway  and  its  Importance. 

XVI.  IN  THE  LAND  OF  THE  "  LION  AND  THE  SUN  "...  290 
Climate  of   Persia — Forms  of  Irrigation — Three  Types  of 
Villages — Cultivation    of    the     Soil — Sheep-raising — Haying 

— Gardens  and  Orchards — Three  Enemies  of  the  Farmer — 
The  Agricultural  Class — Persian  Cities — Baths — Instances  of 
Burying  Alive — Squares — Street  Dogs. 

XVII.  THE  POSITION  OF  WOMEN  IN  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD, 

ACCORDING  TO  THE  TEACHINGS  OF  THE  KORAN  .  .  304 
Woman  as  a  Creature  Distinguished  by  Her  Love  of 
Ornaments  and  Disputing  without  Reason — Woman  as 
the  Property  of  Her  Husband — Principle  of  Control  over 
Woman  as  Found  in  the  Koran — Are  Women  Admitted  to 
Paradise? — Harems  and  their  Exclusiveness — The  Koran's 
View  as  to  the  Benefits  of  Marriage — Polygamy — Principle  of 
Equality  among  Wives — Easiness  of  Divorce  One  of  the 
Curses  of  Islamism — Property  Rights  of  Women. 

XVIII.  THE  POSITION  OF  WOMEN  IN  PERSIA 315 

Costumes  of   City   and   Village  Women — Beroun   and   En- 
deroun — Harem    Servants — Occupation    of   Women — Super- 
stitions— Excursions — Visiting  Shrines — Education  of  Women 

— Betrothals — Weddings — Various  Forms  of  Marriage — A 
Wife  Agde  and  Sege — Monogamy  and  the  Reason  for  its 
Preponderance — Marriage  with  Slaves — Marriage — Marriage 
with  Christians — Position  of  Christian  Wives  in  Harems — 
Marriage  of  Mohammedan  Women  with  non-Mohamme- 
dans Forbidden — Divorce  the  Husband's  Privilege — Uncer- 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGB 

tain  Position  of  the  Woman  in  Her  Husband's  House — 
Harem  Intrigues — Powers  of  Persians  as  Husbands  an'd 
Fathers. 

XIX.  PERSIAN  DAYS  OF  MOURNING,  FASTS  AND  FEASTS    .,    .  340 
Characteristics  of  Shiite  Fetes — Friday — The  Sacred  Month 

of  Muharram  and  its  First  Ten  Days — Historical  Origin  of 
these  Celebrations — Religious  Processions — Mystery  Plays — 
Tekke  Actors — Birthdays  of  Mohammed  and  All — Fasting 
During  Ramadan — Anniversary  of  Ali's  Death — Night  of 
el-Kadr — First  of  Month  of  Shawwal — Omar-Kushan — 
Kurban  Bairam — The  Persian  New  Year — Its  Origin  and 
Significance  in  the  Life  of  Persians — Calls — Solar  Year — 
The  Calendar  in  the  Persian's  Life — Divisions  of  Summer 
and  Winter  into  Periods — Divisions  of  the  Twenty-four 
Hours. 

XX.  SHIITE  PILGRIMAGES  TO  THEIR  SACRED  PLACES  IN  PERSIA  364 
Rleason  of  Meshed's  Being  Formerly  Inaccessible  to  Europeans 

— History  of  Meshed — City  of  Tus — Sanabad — Meshed  at  the 
Present  Time — Sacred  Rights  of  Refuge,  or  "  Bast " — Causes 
Giving  Rise  to  This  Privilege — The  Shrine  of  Imam  Riza 
as  a  "  Bast " — Muteveli  Bashi,  Rezavi  and  Tulabi — Abuse  of 
"  Bast " — Ways  of  Entering  the  "  Bast " — Conversion  of 
Christians  to  Mohammedanism — Sani  Kuhneh — The  Tomb 
of  the  Imam — Mosque  of  Gauhar  Shad — Sani  Nouv — Libra- 
ries— Income  and  Expenses  of  the  Shrine — Miracles — Stones 
as  Pilgrims — Kum — Mosque  of  Fatima — Grave  of  the  Shahs. 

XXI.  LAW  PROCEEDINGS  IN  PERSIA,  RETALIATION,  AND  TEACH- 

INGS   CONCERNING  THE  "  PRICE  OF  BLOOD  "  AND 
PUNISHMENTS     .     .     .     .     .     .     .....  377 

Unchangeableness  of  Persian  Social  Life — The  Koran's 
Principle  of  an  "  Eye  For  an  Eye " — Who  Can,  Accord- 
ing to  the  Shariat,  be  Appointed  as  Judge — Shariat  and 
Urf — Ministry  of  Justice — Civil  Law  Proceedings — Mohas- 
sels — Box  of  Justice — Criminal  Laws  According  to  the  Koran 
— Punishments  Laid  Down  by  Shariat  for  Theft,  Murder, 


CONTENTS  xiii 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

etc. — Punishments  According  to  Urf  for  the  Same  Crimes — 
Home-made  Punishments  for  Theft — Punishment  for  Spread- 
ing False  Reports,  for  Robbery  and  Physical  Injuries — 
Fatalism — Why  a  Dull  Knife  is  Used  in  Beheading — Three 
Forms  of  Murder  as  Admitted  by  the  Shariat — Price  of  Blood 
for  Man,  Woman,  Slave,  and  Unbelievers — Price  for  Physi- 
cal Injuries — Right  of  Retaliation  and  Blood  Feuds — Right 
of  Refuge — Instances  of  Blood  Feuds — Blood  Feuds  among 
Nomads  and  in  High  Life — Chief  Points  of  Difference  in 
Moslem  Laws  and  Those  Recognised  by  Europeans. 

XXII.  THE  PERSIAN  AT  HOME  .     .     ,.:    ,.,     .    ,.     .     ...    .«  402 

Manner  of  Building  His  House — Enderoun  and  Beroun — 
Cellars — Water-Reservoirs — Kursie — Summer-Resorts — Ab- 
sence of  Fashions — Daily  Occupations — Presents — Food,  Law* 
ful  and  Unlawful — Wine  Forbidden — Persian  Table — Sweets 
— Gez — Wine-Making — Hashish  and  Opium  Serious  Men- 
aces to  Persia — Edible  Varieties  of  Earth — Amusements — 
Tamashas — Dinners — Sports — Falconry — Training  of  Fal- 
cons— Special  Forms  of  Sport — Races — Jugglers  and  Gymnas- 
tics, 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

STREET  OF  BAGDAD     ........     ..;    :.     Frontispiece 

PACING   PAGE 

MOSQUE  OF  IMAM  AZAM  HANIFE     ........  8 

THE  TIGRIS  AT  BAGDAD 18 

MOSQUE  OF  SHIEKH  ABDUL  KADIR 26 

TOMB  OF  ZOBEIDA,  HAROUN-AL-RASHID'S  FAVORITE  WIFE  .  36 

KURDISH  WARRIORS 42 

Bms-NiMROD,  OR  TOWER  OF  NIMROD 52 

OUTSIDE  THE  CITY  WALL,  THE  SQUARE  OF  IMAM  AZAM  AND 

THE  CIVIL  HOSPITAL  OF  BAGDAD     .......  60 

THE  INTERIOR  OF  MOSQUE  OF  SHIEKH  ABDUL  KADIR  ...  68 

PONTOON  BRIDGE  ACROSS  THE  TIGRIS  AT  BAGDAD  ....  82 

MOSQUE  OF  IMAM  HUSSEIN 92 

BAGDAD  TYPE 100 

MOSQUE  OF  IMAM  MUSA,  KAZMAIN,  (front  view}  .  .  .  108 

ARAB  GUIDES 116 

GROUP  OF  ARABS  SHOWING  THE  "  KAFIYAH,"  OR  HEAD-DRESS  124 

A  BEDOUIN  TENT 138 

GROUP  OF  BEDOUIN  MEN,  WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN  .  .  .  148 

ARAB  HORSEMEN 160 

EUROPEAN  CHILDREN  RIDING  IN  BOXES  ON  DONKEY  BACK  .  168 
TIGRIS:  ENGLISH  STEAMERS  RUNNING  BETWEEN  BAGDAD  AND 

BASSORAH 178 

ARTIFICIAL  FERTILIZATION  OF  DATE  PALMS 184 

MOSQUE  OF  SHIEKH  MAARONF  KER  RHIE,  ON  THE  TIGRIS 

OPPOSITE  BAGDAD 194 

ARCH  OF  CTESIPHON 202 

TOWN  OF  BASSORAH  ON  THE  CREEK 210 

GROUP  OF  BOMBAY  PARSEES 218 

BIRDS  EYE  VIEW  OF  KERBELA .  234 

COURT  OF  MOSQUE  OF  SHIEKH  ABDUL  KADIR 250 

MECCA 264 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING  PAGE 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  CITY  OF  NEDJEF    .     ..,    ,.     .     .....  280 

TYPE  OF  ARAB  PHYSICIAN     .     .     .     ,.     -.,    ..     ....  292 

TYPE  OF  DERVISH 298 

PERSIAN  WOMAN 306 

PERSIAN  WOMAN  DRAWING  ON  THE  OUT  OF  DOOR  TROWSERS  310 

PERSIAN  LADY  RAISING  H'ER  VEIL 324 

PERSIAN  LADIES  LISTENING  TO  Music 336 

MUHARRAM   "  BLOODY   PROCESSION  " 354 

FLAT  ROOFS,  FROM  TOP  OF  MILITARY  QUARTERS    ....  370 

RUSSIAN  CONSULATE,  MESHED 382 

PERSIAN  KURSIE 392 

TYPE  OF  PALACE  IN  TEHERAN 410 

SHAH'S  SHOOTING  Box  IN  THE  MOUNTAINS     .     .     .     .     .  420 


LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 


CHAPTER   I 

IN   BAGDAD 

Serdabs — Means  of  Navigation  on  the  Tigris — Past  an'd  Present  Bag- 
dad— Inhabitants — The  Tomb  of  Zobeida — Mosques  of  Abdul 
Kadir,  Ahmed  Heaeh  and  Sauk-el-Gazele — Kazmain — Mosque  of 
Imam  Musa — Life  in  Bagdad,  its  Peculiarities — Nomads — Amuse- 
ments— Buffaloes — Snakes — Bagdad  Nights — Unpleasant  Neigh- 
bours— Dervishes  and  their  Orders — Orders  of  Rufai  and  Mevlevie 
— Begging  Dervishes — What  are  the  Conditions  of  the  Existence 
of  Dervishes — Initiation — Miraculous  Powers  of  the  Sheikhs — 
Travelling  Dervishes — Kalandars. 

BAGDAD,  October;  that  is  to  say,  the  season  of  the  year 
when  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  are  thinking  of  moving 
out  of  the  underground  rooms  called  "serdabs,"  in 
which  the  hottest  months  are  passed. 

In  Bagdad,  and  a  few  other  towns  of  Western  Asia, 
where  for  six  months  of  the  year  the  thermometer  rises 
to  115°  F.,  in  every  house  these  subterranean  chambers 
are  built.  The  deeper  the  "  serdab  "  the  cooler  it  is,  but 
at  the  same  time  the  damper.  The  word  "  cooler,"  when 
applied  to  anything  describing  Bagdad,  must  be  taken 
comparatively,  as  even  in  the  best  serdabs  the  thermome- 
ter varies  from  92°  to  99°  F.  These  rooms  are  usually 
kept  dark,  the  light  entering  through  small  windows, 
sometimes  openings,  where  instead  of  glass  is  placed  a 
lattice  of  palm  filled  with  the  prickly  camel's  thorn,  called 
"  agul."  Several  times  a  day  water  is  sprinkled  on  these 
thorns,  and  the  moisture  thus  formed  cools  the  hot  wind 
as  it  passes  through  the  rooms,  giving  a  comparatively 


4  LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM  EAST 

refreshing  breeze.  [But  towarHs  sunset  these  serdabs  be- 
come unbearably  close,  and  then  the  entire  city  mounts 
to  the  flat  roofs,  where  they  dine  and  sleep. 

As  I  write  these  lines,  living  in  a  different  climate 
and  among  quite  other  surroundings,  and  separated  from 
the  period  of  which  I  am  writing  by  nearly  twenty 
years,  before  my  eyes  as  by  magic  comes  the  picture  we 
used  to  see  from  the  height  of  our  roofs :  the  Tigris  shin- 
ing in  the  moonlight,  which  in  that  cloudless  sky  is  un- 
usually radiant;  the  green  belt  of  palm  and  orange 
gardens  watered  by  this  Biblical  river  bounding  Meso- 
potamia, the  cradle  of  the  human  race,  and  the  site,  ac- 
cording to  some  more  or  less  problematical  theories,  of 
the  Garden  of  Eden;  the  scene  of  the  feats  of  Nimrod 
and  of  Nebuchadnezzar — at  that  time  a  flowering  gar- 
den, now  a  desert.  But  now,  as  then,  the  troubled  wa- 
ters of  the  Tigris  sparkle  and  shine  in  the  moonlight,  as 
they  rush  by.  In  perfect  accord  with  the  scene  is  the 
sound  of  the  amateur  singer  who  floats  by  in  his  round, 
cup-like  boat  of  basket  work  smeared  with  bitumen,  and 
guided  by  a  sort  of  shovel  in  lieu  of  an  oar.  These  bowls 
used  instead  of  ordinary  boats  are  mentioned  by  Herod- 
otus, and  are  to  be  seen  on  some  of  the  old  Assyrian 
sculptures  that  date  back  1,000  years  before  our  era. 
They  are  called  "  guffas,"  and  are  often  of  considerable 
size,  capable  of  carrying  1,500  pounds  or  more. 

The  swift  current  of  the  Tigris,  or  "  Arrow,"  makes 
the  round  form  of  these  boats  preferable  to  those  of  usual 
pointed  shape.  The  swiftness  of  the  waters  of  the  Tigris 
fully  justifies  the  name  of  "Arrow,"  for  in  the  spring 
the  current  sweeps  down  at  a  speed  of  fully  six  miles  an 
hour.  Under  tfrese  circumstances  an  ordinary  boat  is 
easily  capsized,  while  these  round  boats  prove  to  be  more 
stable.  Going  down  the  river  the  guffa  has  two  motions, 
the  forward  one  and  a  constant  rotating  on  its  own  axle. 


IN  BAGDAD  5 

This  turning  has  the  advantage  of  presenting  a  constant 
change  in  the  landscape,  but  to  the  uninitiated  it  some- 
times proves  disagreeable,  bringing  on  giddiness  that 
can  only  be  overcome  by  keeping  one's  eyes  fixed  on  the 
bottom  of  the  boat — hardly  an  inspiring  way  of  travel- 
ling. Against  the  current  the  guffas  have  to  be  towed. 

Aside  from  the  guffas  the  only  other  native  craft  on 
the  Tigris  are  sailboats  called  "  bellams,"  built  of  palm- 
wood  and  also  covered  like  Noah's  ark  of  old  with  bitu- 
men. They  sail  with  the  current,  and  against  it  with 
favourable  winds,  but  in  a  calm,  or  with  head  winds,  they, 
too,  are  towed  by  men.  These  bellams  are  to  be  met  with 
mostly  between  Bagdad  and  Bassorah.  Between  Mosul 
and  Bagdad  the  communication  is  by  "kelleks" — rafts 
made  by  inflating  sheepskins,  and  by  laying  over  them 
matting  or  a  floor  of  branches  or  boards.  Fifty  or  a 
hundred  skins  are  often  used  in  the  construction  of  such 
a  raft,  which,  on  arriving  at  Bagdad,  is  broken  up  and 
the  skins  sold  at  a  good  profit.  If  passengers  are  carried, 
a  tent  or  small  hut  can  be  arranged.  The  rafts  float  down 
with  the  speed  of  the  current,  from  one  to  six  miles  an 
hour,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year.  As  the  raft 
passes  villages,  or  the  black  tents  of  the  half -nomadic 
tribes,  the  women  often  come  out  riding  astride  on  a 
buffalo  that  swims  alongside  the  raft,  carrying  on  their 
heads  curds,  milk,  butter  and  eggs  to  sell.  In  this  way 
the  traveller  gets  fresh  supplies  for  his  table  and  his 
sense  of  the  picturesque  satisfied  at  the  same  time. 

But  Qther  recollections  come  to  me — not  the  autumn, 
but  the  hot  season.  The  same  moonlight,  the  same  cloud- 
less sky,  but  quite  different  impressions.  Worn  out  by 
the  continued  heat  one  longs  for  a  respite  and  a  breath  of 
cool  air,  and  here  on  the  roof,  though  it  is  night  and  the 
bricks  have  been  freely  wet  with  cold  water,  the  tempera- 
ture is  ninety-nine  degrees  or  above.  Even  at  this  dis- 


6  LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

tance  I  cannot  remember  without  a  shudder  the  long, 
sleepless  nights  passed  on  the  roof  at  Bagdad  1  Some- 
times in  addition  the  hot  simoom  blew,  bringing  clouds 
of  the  finest  dust,  and  during  such  fearful  nights  cases 
of  death  by  heat  apoplexy  not  infrequently  occurred. 
At  such  times  the  only  relief  to  be  found  was  in  covering 
up  head  and  all  in  a  thick  quilt. 

With  the  first  rays  of  the  sun  one  has  to  go  down  to 
the  verandas  or  gardens,  ,and  a  little  later  to  the  dusky 
serdabs  where  the  whole  day  is  spent,  until  the  evening 
cool  again  permits  of  going  up  to  the  roof.  And  so  we 
drag  on  day  after  day,  without  the  possibility  of  escaping 
from  the  heat  even  for  a  few  hours.  Adding  to  this  the 
numberless  swarms  of  mosquitoes  and  other  insects,  scor- 
pions, and  sometimes  snakes  that  frequent  the  serdabs, 
the  reader  can  understand  that  the  mere  fact  of  existence 
may  become  a  burden. 

The  derivation  of  the  name  of  Bagdad  is  disputed. 
Some  authorities  claim  it  to  come  from  Baga,  the 
name  of  the  mythical  god  of  the  Chaldees;  others  con- 
sider it  to  be  from  Bag,  garden;  and  a  third  supposition 
traces  it  to  the  name  of  a  dervish  who  enjoyed  great 
popularity  at  the  time  of  the  building  of  Bagdad.  The 
city  is  built  on  both  banks  of  the  Tigris,  connected  by  a 
pontoon  bridge  700  feet  long.  The  city  proper,  how- 
ever, is  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  Here  are  to  be 
found  the  administrative  buildings,  the  ancient  citadel, 
mosques,  caravan  serais  and  all  the  foreign  consulates, 
excepting  the  Persian.  The  city  on  the  right  bank  has 
now  dwindled  to  a  mere  suburb  inhabitated  by  Shiite 
Arabs,  and  here,  too,  is  the  Persian  consulate. 

The  population  of  Bagdad  is  estimated  to  be  about 
145,000,  of  which  50,000  are  Sunnite  Mohammedans,  and 
35,000  Shiite  Mohammedans.  Of  Christian  sects  there 
are  Greeks,  Greek-Catholics,  Armenians  and  Armenian- 


IN   BAGDAD  7 

Catholics,  in  all  about  7,000.  The  Jews  are  estimated  at 
52,000. 

Bagdad  was  founded  763  A.D.  by  the  second  Abbasside 
caliph,  Abu  Jaffar-el-Mansur,  according  to  his  own 
plans.  It  took  three  years  to  build  the  city,  and  a  good 
description  of  it  has  come  down  to  us.  The  city  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  thirty  feet  high  and  eight  feet  wide. 
The  palace  of  the  caliph,  of  which  not  a  trace  now  re- 
mains, was  of  fabulous  beauty.  Twenty-four  thousand 
streets  were  laid  out,  each  of  which  possessed  its  own 
mosque  and  public  bath.  One  hundred  and  fifty  canals 
ran  through  the  city  carrying  water  from  the  Tigris,  and 
across  which  were  thrown  one  hundred  and  fifty  bridges. 
By  the  order  of  the  Caliph  Jaffar-el-Mansur  a  colossal 
canal  was  dug  and  can  yet  be  traced.  From  this  main 
artery  ran  six  hundred  small  canals  carrying  water  to 
irrigate  the  suburbs  of  Bagdad,  now  a  desert. 

Thanks  to  its  geographical  position  Bagdad  flourished 
rapidly,  and  during  the  reign  of  Haroun-al-Rashid  be- 
came the  centre  of  the  Eastern  trade  and  the  seat  of  cul- 
ture. The  fame  of  its  glory  and  untold  riches  spread 
throughout  the  then  known  world,  and  has  come  down 
to  us  through  the  Arab  historians,  who  devoted  many 
pages  to  describing  its  palaces,  mosques  and  public  build- 
ings, at  a  period  when  Europe  was  yet  sunk  in  barbarism. 

At  the  close  of  the  ninth  century  the  population  of 
Bagdad  is  said  to  have  been  2,000,000,  that  is  as  many  as 
there  are  now  to  be  found  in  the  whole,  huge  province 
of  Bagdad. 

Haroun-al-Rashid  fully  merited  his  world  renown 
and  may  well  be  termed  the  "  Caliph  of  the  Sun."  He 
was  a  contemporary  and  ally  of  Charlemagne,  with 
whom  he  kept  in  frequent  communication,  and  we  read 
of  many  presents  passing  between  these  two  great  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Eastern  and  Western  civilisation. 


8  LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

Among  the  gifts  sent  by  the  caliph  to  Charlemagne  is 
mentioned  a  wonderful  clock,  the  first  ever  introduced 
into  Europe. 

Haroun-al-Rashid  died  in  ,the  full  strength  and  prime 
of  life  at  the  age  of  forty-seven,  after  reigning  gloriously 
twenty-three  years,  and  was  buried  within  the  sacred 
mosque  of  the  eighth  Imam  Riza,  at  Meshed. 

Already  during  the  reign  of  the  third  son  of  Haroun- 
al-Rashid  the  decline  of  Bagdad  began.  The  capital 
was  transferred  to  Samara,  ninety-three  miles  from  Bag- 
dad. The  caliph  turned  the  slaves  captured  in  Turkes- 
tan into  an  army,  and  though  he  led  them  to  victorious 
wars,  they  were  mutinous,  and  disorders,  culminating  in 
civil  war,  followed.  By  1118  the  Abbasside  caliphate 
had  lost  much  of  its  former  prestige  and  power,  and  by 
1258  Bagdad  was  taken  by  Hulaku,  the  grandson  of 
Jenghiz  Khan,  who  ordered  the  execution  of  all  sayids 
and  wise  men;  during  his  wholesale  massacres  350,000 
souls  perished. 

In  1401  Bagdad  was  taken  by  Tamerlane  and  then 
passed  successively  from  Persians  to  Turks  and  back 
until  it  came  finally  into  the  hands  of  the  latter  in  1638. 
This  event  is  commemorated  by  the  conquering  Sultan 
Murad  IV.  in  an  inscription  over  one  of  the  citadel  gates 
— now  bricked  up — through  which  he  broke  into  the  city. 

It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  from  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury the  importance  and  power  of  Bagdad  diminished,  its 
fabulous  wealth  vanished  and  its  population  decreased. 
This  was  hastened  by  the  epidemics  which  devastated 
Bagdad,  the  great  plague  of  1831  carrying  off  over  half 
of  the  population.  In  the  Bagdad  of  our  days  it  needs 
the  liveliest  imagination  to  reproduce  that  once  famous 
queen  of  the  Eastern  cities. 

At  the  present  time  Bagdad  serves  as  the  commercial 
centre  joining  the  trade  of  Europe  and  Asia.  The  chief 


IN   BAGDAD  9 

exports,  amounting  to  the  sum  of  $7,500,000,  are  grain, 
wool,  feathers,  licorice,  tobacco,  silk,  skins,  hides,  gum, 
carpets  and  horses.  In  exchange  are  imported  Man- 
chester goods,  iron,  tea,  coffee  and  sugar,  in  all  amount- 
ing to  the  sum  of  $4,800,000. 

From  a  distance,  and  especially  from  the  deck  of  the 
steamer  as  one  approaches,  Bagdad  is  very  beautiful, 
with  its  mosques  and  minarets  framed  by  the  lofty  date 
palms  and  the  noble  river  in  the  foreground;  but  the 
moment  one  sets  foot  on  shore,  and  sees  the  narrow,  dirty 
streets,  the  illusion  vanishes.  Few  cities  have  been  built 
and  rebuilt  on  so  many  successive  layers  of  ruins.  Very 
little  remains  to  mark  the  golden  age  of  Bagdad,  though 
one  constantly  comes  across  the  yet  more  ancient  bricks 
bearing  the  stamp  of  Nebuchadnezzar  that  have  been 
brought  from  the  ruins  of  Babylon  and  are  used  in  mod- 
ern buildings.  We  do  not  know  even  where  the  famous 
palace  of  Haroun-al-Rashid  stood.  From  this  epoch 
remains  only  the  tomb  of  Zobeida,  Haroun-al-Rashid's 
favourite  wife,  and  Khan  Ortma,  a  handsome  and  exten- 
sive caravanserai.  All  other  ancient  buildings  are  of  a 
later  date  and  present  an  unusually  happy  combination 
of  Persian  and  Arabic  styles  of  architecture.  Worthy  of 
notice  among  the  latter  is  the  mosque  over  the  grave  of 
Abdul  Kadir  Delani,  restored  by  Sultan  Murad  IV.  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  Abdul  Kadir  is  one  of  the  most 
revered  of  the  Sunnite  saints,  and  great  donations  have 
been  received  by  this  mosque  for  its  support  and  that  of 
the  school  connected  with  it.  Its  yearly  revenue  is  50,- 
ooo  Turkish  pounds,  or  about  $23 1 ,000.  Among  the  few 
monuments  of  interest  must  be  added  also  the  unusually 
beautiful  mosque  of  Ahmed  Heaeh,  with  its  minarets; 
the  mausoleum  over  the  tomb  of  Haroun-al-Rashid's 
brother,  built  in  the  thirteenth  century;  the  mausoleum  of 
Joshua,  which  is  in  the  care  of  the  Jews,  and,  finally,  the 


jo          LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

mosque  of  Sauk-el-Gazele,  with  its  beautiful  minarets 
one  hundred  and  eight  feet  in  height. 

In  speaking  of  Bagdad  one  must  not  forget  Kazmain,  a 
town  about  four  miles  from  Bagdad  and  inhabited  by 
Persian  and  Indian  Shiites.  This  town  is  more  attract- 
ive than  Bagdad,  as  the  Persians  have  far  more  artistic 
instinct  than  the  Turks,  and  their  love  for  trees  and 
flowers  is  seen  on  every  side.  However  small  a  court- 
yard, a  few  flowers,  trees,  or  even  bushes  are  sure  to  be 
found,  and  wherever  irrigating  streams  of  water  flow 
along  the  side  of  the  street  a  row  of  trees  is  planted.  Even 
the  small  shopkeeper  will  have  a  few  marigolds  and 
four-o'clocks  growing  in  front  of  his  door  disputing  the 
narrow  sidewalk  with  the  passer-by. 

But  Kazmain  is  noted  chiefly  as  a  place  of  pilgrimage 
for  the  Shiite  world,  drawn  here  by  the  tomb  of  one  of 
their  saints,  Imam  Musa,  in  whose  honour  is  the  mosque 
with  five  minarets  bearing  his  name.  There  is  no  build- 
ing in  Bagdad  to  compare  in  size  and  beauty  with  this 
mosque.  Its  two  domes  are  covered  with  gold  leaf,  the 
present  of  Naser-ed-Deen  Shah.  From  all  over  the 
Shiite  world  pilgrims  come  to  pray  at  this  tomb,  bearing 
offerings  until  the  revenue  of  the  mosque  has  reached 

Ja  colossal  sum. 
Life  in  Bagdad  owing  to  its  unusual  climatic  condi- 
tions has  its  peculiar  characteristics.  As  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  seven  hot  months  the  inhabitants  live 
by  day  in  the  serdabs  and  at  night  on  the  roofs,  they  are 
obliged  to  rise  very  early,  before  the  sun  is  up,  or  at  least 
with  its  first  rays.  At  that  hour  the  city  begins  to  live, 
bazaars  and  offices  open  and  the  working  class  com- 
mences its  day,  but  towards  noon  the  city  life  dies  down 
until  between  four  and  five  o'clock.  During  these  mid- 
dle hours  of  the  day  all  adults  cease  work  and  only  half- 
grown  boys  find  something  to  do.  I  often  remarked  with 


II 

feelings  of  deepest  pity  the  burdens  far  beyond  their  years 
carried  by  boys  in  Bagdad. 

With  the  beginning  of  the  cooler  weather,  September, 
the  serdabs  may  be  exchanged  up  to  midday  for  the  ve- 
randas, but  from  then  to  four  o'clock  one  is  again  con- 
demned to  serdabs,  returning  later  in  the  afternoon  to  the 
veranda  and  at  night  again  to  the  roof.  Throughout 
this  period  one  has  to  live  a  nomadic  life  particularly 
inconvenient  during  illness,  or  when  working,  thus  being 
obliged  to  move  all  one's  belongings  several  times  a  day. 

The  long  evenings  on  the  roof  were  particularly 
wearisome.  It  was  impossible  to  read  or  write,  as  myri- 
ads of  mosquitoes  and  other  winged  insects  attracted  by 
the  light  poisoned  one's  existence,  and  therefore  lamps 
were  placed  at  a  distance  from  those  sitting  on  the  root'. 

Amusements?  What  amusements  can  one  have  in  an 
Eastern  city  and  with  such  a  climate?  From  time  to 
time  dinners,  tennis  and  cricket  for  the  more  energetic, 
and  rides  that  all  tried  to  keep  up  for  health's  sake  if  not 
for  pleasure.  The  rides  were  invariably  in  one  direc- 
tion— out  in  the  boundless  desert  where  all  met  on  some 
little  mounds,  the  nearest  apologies  for  mountains  we  had, 
about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  city.  These  rides  were 
taken  either  very  early  in  the  morning  before  sunrise,  or 
an  hour  or  so  before  sunset. 

We  often  drove  out  in  a  little  one-horse  carriage,  and 
many  were  the  amusing  incidents  that  broke  the  monot- 
ony of  the  drives.  In  our  time  there  were  but  three  or 
four  other  carriages  in  all  Bagdad,  which  was  fortunate, 
as  many  streets  were  too  narrow  for  two  vehicles  to  pass. 
We  generally  had  outriders  ahead  to  see  if  the  road  was 
clear,  but  once  or  twice  we  were  caught  in  these  narrow 
streets  meeting  the  governor  general.  Then  all  we 
could  do  was  to  alight  and  with  him  stand  in  the  street 
until  the  horses  were  unharnessed,  one  of  the  carriages 


\i2          LIFE  IN)  THE  MOSLEM  EAST 

turned  arouriH1  Ey  hand  and  then,  the  horses  heading 
towards  the  opposite  direction  from  which  they  had 
come,  one  of  us  would  make  way  lor  the  other. 

The  most  unpleasant  meetings  were  with  buffaloes  that 
just  at  our  hour  for  driving  in  the  morning  or  evening 
would  be  going  or  returning  from  their  pastures.  In 
[Bagdad  and  throughout  Mesopotamia  cows  find  diffi- 
culty in  surviving  the  great  heat  and  therefore  buffaloes 
are  kept  as  better  able  to  bear  the  climate.  These  useful 
creatures  fulfil  various  functions;  buffalo  cows  are 
milked;  buffaloes  take  the  place  of  horses  in  cultivating 
the  fields,  in  carrying  burdens  on  their  backs,  and  even 
form  substitutes  for  boats  in  case  of  need,  and  their  flesh 
is  used  for  food.  These  powerful  animals  are  fine  swim- 
mers, and  an  Arab  mounted  astride  one  will  cross  the  Ti- 
gris about  1,500  feet  broad,  not  at  full  flood,  but  still 
when  the  current  is  running  two  and  a  half  to  three  miles 
an  hour.  The  process  is  very  simple.  The  Arab  strips, 
makes  a  bundle  of  his  clothes,  which  he  carries  on  his  head, 
and  with  a  stick  in  his  hand  they  enter  the  river.  The 
buffalo  fights  the  current  bravely,  swimming  with  only 
his  nose  and  horns  above  water,  the  Arab  encouraging 
him  with  his  voice  and  stick  and  endeavouring  to  so  guide 
him  that  the  current  may  not  carry  him  too  far  below 
their  goal  on  the  opposite  bank. 

It  is  interesting  sometimes  to  watch  a  whole  family 
cross  the  Tigris  in  this  way.  If,  as  occasionally  happens, 
an  Arab  slips  off  the  buffalo's  back,  he  tries  to  get  hold 
of  the  tail  or  swim  along  on  the  upper  side  of  the  animal. 
The  Arab  cultivators  of  the  soil,  or  fellahs,  bordering  the 
Euphrates  or  Tigris,  are  all  good  swimmers  from  child- 
hood. Every  morning  about  sunrise  during  the  summer 
months  we  watched  from  our  roof  the  same  picture:  a 
whole  class  of  boys,  thirty  or  forty,  swimming  under  the 
guidance  of  a  teacher,  who,  seated  in  a  guffa,  paddled 


IN   BAGDAD  13 

after  them.  Seldom  we  saw  a  boy  need  more  than  an 
encouraging  shout  from  the  master,  each  one  tried  to 
swim  for  himself.  The  only  real  danger  here  was  from 
sharks  that  sometimes  follow  steamers  up  from  the 
Persian  Gulf,  but  they  generally  attack  solitary  bathers. 
Occasionally  very  large  sharks  get  up  as  far  as  Bagdad. 
To  return  to  the  buffalo.  This  animal  is  not  as  gentle 
as  its  stupid  looks  would  lead  one  to  suppose,  and  from 
time  to  time  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  would,  with  jus- 
tice, complain  of  him.  A  herd  will  sometimes  stampede 
without  any  apparent  cause,  rushing  madly  through  the 
narrow  streets,  bellowing  and  sweeping  down  all  before 
them,  pedestrians  and  even  horsemen.  We  had  such  an 
experience  with  them  on  returning  from  a  drive  one  even- 
ing. We  were  in  the  carriage  with  four  outriders,  two 
ahead  and  two  behind.  Just  at  the  entrance  of  the  city 
we  overtook  a  herd  of  about  twenty  buffaloes.  In  pass- 
ing them  I  noticed  that  the  head  one  tossed  his  huge 
horns  in  a  menacing  manner.  A  few  minutes  later  we 
heard  from  behind  the  cry  of  "Buffaloes!  Buffaloes!" 
All  the  horsemen  back  of  us  dashed  past,  but  as  we  pretty 
well  filled  the  narrow  street  they  had  almost  to  jump  over 
our  wheels  or  graze  their  horses.  Those  on  foot  tried  to 
get  into  gateways  or  slip  through  open  doors.  Looking 
back  I  saw  the  buffaloes  with  lowered  heads  gaining  on 
us  and  I  put  our  horse  into  a  gallop.  He,  frightened  by 
the  tramping  herd  behind,  and  instinctively  feeling  the 
danger,  broke  into  a  full  run,  and  all  that  I  could  do  was 
to  try  to  guide  him  safely  around  sharp  corners.  In  this 
way,  tearing  madly  along,  we  finally  reached  the  broad 
gates  of  our  yard  and  had  just  time  to  swing  in  while  the 
waiting  groom,  grasping  the  situation,  closed  the  gates  and 
the  enraged  herd  rushed  by.  We  found  afterwards  that 
in  their  victorious  charge  they  had  injured  several  per- 
sons. 


i4  LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

As  the  cool  season  approached  one  could  shoot  duradji 
in  the  gardens  about  Bagdad.  These  birds  keep  close  to 
the  prickly  cover  to  be  found  everywhere,  and  European 
dogs  find  great  difficulty  in  raising  the  game,  though  re- 
turning from  their  efforts  with  badly  scratched  ears.  The 
local  mongrel  dogs  work  their  way  very  cleverly  and  do 
not  so  quickly  tire.  The  most  unpleasant  part  of  shoot- 
ing was  the  constant  danger  of  stepping  on  snakes,  though 
we  were  not  free  from  that  danger  even  in  the  houses. 
My  writing  table  in  the  serdab  stood  right  under  the 
"  bagdir,"  or  ventilating  shaft  running  up  from  the  ser- 
dab to  the  roof.  One  day  working  there  I  heard  some- 
thing soft  and  heavy  flop  down  on  the  table.  Raising  my 
head  I  saw  a  large  snake  over  a  yard  long  crawling 
towards  me  over  the  table.  It  was  killed  and  proved  to 
be  a  harmless  kind.  But  there  is  an  exceedingly  ven- 
omous snake,  almost  as  much  so  as  a  cobra,  that  we  found 
from  time  to  time  in  the  house.  They  glide  into  such 
small  cracks  that  it  is  difficult  to  believe  one's  own  eyes 
seeing  the  size  of  the  reptile. 

Once  sitting  on  the  veranda  we  were  attracted  by  the 
cries  of  our  monkey  Figaro,  whose  language  we  under- 
stood. His  danger  cry  was  a  shrill  sound  resembling 
krrr,  krrr.  Glancing  at  Figaro  I  saw  that  he  was  look- 
ing and  pointing  at  one  of  the  stone  pillars  that  sup- 
ported the  veranda,  but  could  see  nothing.  The  mon- 
key, too,  calmed  down,  but  in  a  few  minutes  repeated  his 
warning  "  krrr,  krrr."  Soon  I  saw  from  a  hole  so  small 
one  could  hardly  pass  one's  finger,  the  head  of  a  snake. 
At  my  approach  it  disappeared.  We  were  determined 
to  dislodge  our  unwelcome  tenant,  but  for  a  time  all  our 
efforts  were  in  vain.  Finally  some  one  found  the  way. 
Bringing  boiling  water  it  was  thrown  into  the  hole,  and 
the  snake  immediately  flung  itself  out  and  was  killed. 
It  proved  to  be  poisonous.  Another  time  a  venomous 


IN   BAGDAD  15 

snake  was  found  in  the  bed.  The  natives  affirm,  and  in 
Persia  I  have  heard  the  same,  that  as  nights  become  cool 
snakes  often  creep  into  beds  to  get  warm.  How  correct 
this  interpretation  of  their  motives  may  be,  it  is  a  fact  that 
snakes  are  not  infrequently  found  in  beds.  The  wife  of 
our  cook  was  in  this  way  bitten  by  a  snake,  and  though  the 
poison  was  immediately  sucked  out  and  then  the  wound 
cauterised  with  a  hot  iron,  she  was  seriously  ill  for  a 
couple  of  weeks. 

And  the  famous  Bagdad  nights  of  Sheherazade! 
Those  nights  when  Haroun-al-Rashid  in  disguise  lis- 
tened to  the  conversation  of  the  passerby  on  the  pontoon 
bridge!  Alas,  either  the  climate  has  undergone  a  change 
since  that  time,  or  one  must  be  born  in  Bagdad  to  appre- 
ciate such  nights.  For  from  six  to  seven  months  in  the 
year  the  nights  are  simply  unbearable,  when  even  the 
"  cold  light  of  the  moon  "  does  not  lessen  but  at  full  moon 
actually  increases  the  heat.  Though  the  flat  roof  is  fre- 
quently and  plentifully  sprinkled  with  water,  it  evapo- 
rates almost  instantly,  leaving  a  hothouse  atmosphere. 

What  added  to  the  misery  of  our  nights  was  the  adjoin- 
ing "  tekke,"  or  home  of  the  howling  dervishes,  the 
founder  of  which,  Abdul  Gelian,  died  in  Bagdad  1165 
A.D.  Over  his  tomb  is  the  tekke  and  mosque  mentioned 
above.  Their  peculiar  service  was  held  every  Thursday 
evening  on  the  roof  of  the  house  almost  adjoining  ours, 
beginning  at  about  nine  o'clock  and  lasting  until  mid- 
night or  much  later,  until  some  one  ended  in  an  hysterical 
fit  and  in  convulsions  cried  out  wholly  unintelligible 
words.  At  the  beginning  the  sheikh  sang  a  solo  from 
verses  of  the  Koran  in  rather  a  pleasing  tenor,  but  this 
did  not  last  long.  Then  followed  the  repetition  of  their 
creed,  "  La  Illahi  illal  Lahu,"  there  is  no  God  but  God, 
constantly  increasing  in  fastness  of  time  until  it  becomes 
a  dull  roar,  changing  after  an  hour  into  positively  inhu- 


16          LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

man  sounfts,  broken  occasionally  by  hysterical  shout's  or 
screams.  These  neighbours  were  so  unpleasant  that  we 
should  have  changed  our  house  had  there  been  a  suitable 
one  vacant  on  the  Tigris. 

The  institution  of  dervishes  occupies  so  important  a 
place  among  the  Sunnites  that  it  is  worthy  of  some  men- 
tion here.  In  speaking  of  dervishes  Europeans  usually 
compare  them  with  monks,  and  their  common  living 
houses  with  the  monasteries.  This  is  hardly  an  accurate 
comparison.  A  religion  that  permits  polygamy  and 
whose  picture  of  paradise  is  peopled  with  houris  does 
not,  of  course,  admit  monks  in  our  sense  of  the  word,  and 
most  dervishes  are  married  men.  But  from  the  point  of 
view  of  asceticism,  withdrawal  from  the  world,  living  the 
life  of  prayer  and  meditation — in  a  word,  live  to  obtain 
paradise — in  this  sense,  perhaps,  it  is  correct  to  compare 
them  with  monks  and  their  common  habitation,  or  tekke, 
with  a  monastery,  though  still  with  certain  reservations. 

According  to  Mohammed's  teachings  all  the  joys  and 
rewards  of  paradise  are  purely  secular.  It  is  a  place  of 
indulgence  of  every  sort.  In  seeking  for  this  happiness 
forty  persons  from  Medina  during  the  lifetime  of  the 
Prophet  formed  a  brotherhood  founded  on  the  socialistic 
principle,  of  all  property  being  common,  and,  abjuring 
the  world,  devoted  themselves  to  a  life  of  prayer  and 
meditation.  This  brotherhood  was  called  Sufi,  some 
think  from  the  name  of  a  place  near  Mecca  where  the 
cult  was  formed,  others  from  the  Greek  word  "  sophias " 
(wisdom),  while  the  third  theory  is  that  the  name  was 
derived  from  "  saf,"  pure.  This  community  formed  the 
seed  of  the  future  dervishes.  In  the  year  37  of  the  he- 
gira,  a  certain  Uveiz-Karshi  declared  that  to  him  ap- 
peared Gabriel  (the  angel  who  plays  so  prominent  a  role 
in  the  Mohammedan  religion)  commanding  him  to  leave 
the  world  and  to  live  a  retired  life.  The  rules  of  the 


IN   BAGDAD  17 

order  of  Uveizi  were  most  stringent,  demanding  absolute 
abstinence  from  all  that  was  worldly,  and  a  literal  imi- 
tation of  the  life  of  the  Prophet.  The  founder  of  the 
order  went  so  far  as  to  have  all  his  teeth  extracted  in  re- 
membrance of  Mohammed's  having  lost  four  teeth  in 
battle.  Under  such  conditions  it  was  not  surprising  that 
the  followers  of  this  order  were  few.  But,  notwithstand- 
ing, simultaneous  with  this  cult  others  with  less  drastic 
rules  were  formed.  The  founders  were  among  the  most 
devoted  followers  of  Mohammed's  sons-in-law,  Ali  and 
Abu-Bekr,  the  first  caliphs.  In  all  there  were  thirty 
such  orders.  Of  these  those  of  Besstani,  Nakshe  Bendi, 
and  Becktashi  count  Abu-Bekr  as  their  patron,  the  rest 
Ali.  Each  of  these  orders  takes  its  name  from  its 
founder.  The  successive  leaders  of  these  orders  are 
called  pirs  or  sheikhs,  and  all  the  other  members  of  the 
community  dervishes,  a  word  of  Persian  origin  meaning 
threshold,  symbolic  of  the  humiliation  and  meekness  that 
should  be  the  attributes  of  every  dervish,  to  whatsoever 
cult  he  may  belong.  There  was  one  order  that  stood  out 
quite  distinct  from  all  others,  that  of  the  Nakshe  Bendi, 
to  which  in  the  last  century  belonged  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  Turkish  aristocracy.  This  was  in  fact  a  religious 
society  that  assembled  at  the  house  of  its  president  in 
order  to  read  prayers.  No  other  conditions  were  laid  on 
this  order. 

All  other  orders  have  their  rules  and  their  particular 
robes  and  head-dress.  Some  wear  high  pointed  felt  caps, 
others  low  and  round,  some  turbans  wound  according  to  a 
certain  fashion.  Many  communities,  too,  have  their  pe- 
culiar way  of  wearing  the  hair.  Some  let  it  grow  long 
and  let  it  hang  freely  over  the  shoulders;  others  braid  it, 
while  some  twist  the  hair  into  a  sort  of  chignon,  etc. 

The  succession  in  each  order  is  jealously  guarded.  The 
leadership  is  inherited  by  the  one  most  closely  fulfilling 


i8  LIFE   IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

the  conditions  of  the  holy  life,  wherefore  the  genealogy 
in  each  order  is  called  "  Silselit-ul-evlia-Ullah  "  which 
being  interpreted  is,  "  the  chain  of  sacred  gods." 

Though  differing  in  the  interpretation  of  holy  living 
and  its  duties,  all  dervishes  unite  in  seven  chief  articles  of 
faith,  forming  the  basis  of  oral  worship.  Aside  from  the 
regulated  prayers,  they  are  obliged  to  repeat  as  often  as 
possible  the  formula  of  their  creed.  First,  La  illahi  illal 
lahu.  Second,  Ya  Allah,  "O  God."  Third,  Ya 
Khuba,  "He,  Existor."  Fourth,  Ya  Hakk,  "O  Just." 
Fifth,  Ya  Hai,  "O,  Living."  Sixth,  Ya  Khai  Urn, 
"O,  Existing."  Seventh,  Ya  Kakahar,  "O,  Revenger." 

These  exclamations  enumerating  the  principal  attri- 
butes of  God  are  repeated  constantly  by  dervishes  of 
whatever  order  they  may  be.  They  also  have  their  place 
in  the  initiation  of  neophytes.  When  anyone  expresses 
a  desire  to  enter  an  order,  the  candidate  has  to  go  through 
a  trial  which  differs  in  different  communities.  Then  the 
candidate  is  admitted  to  a  general  assembly  of  the  der- 
vishes, where  the  sheikh  for  the  first  time  whispers  in  his 
ear  the  first  article  of  the  creed,  "  La  illahi  illal  lahu," 
which  the  novice  is  required  to  repeat  a  certain  number 
of  times,  varying  from  one  hundred  to  three  hundred. 
After  this  the  neophyte  is  obliged  to  retire  from  the 
world  and  give  himself  up  to  meditation,  and  any  vision 
or  dream  that  may  come  to  him  at  this  time  he  is  obliged 
to  relate  to  the  sheikh.  The  latter  invites  the  neophyte 
after  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  judging  by  the  number  and 
character  of  these  visions,  to  a  second  meeting,  where  he 
whispers  in  his  ear  the  second  article  of  faith,  "Ya  Al- 
lah," and  so  on  until  he  has  gone  through  the  seven  arti- 
cles of  their  creed,  which  sometimes  takes  months  or  even 
years.  Only  after  this  initiation  is  the  neophyte  admit- 
ted to  the  full  privileges  of  a  member  of  the  brotherhood. 
In  this  way  the  ceremony  of  initiation  has  the  same  key- 


IN   BAGDAD  19 

note,  differing  only  in  some  details.  Their  religious 
services  also  follow  more  or  less  the  same  order.  The 
sheikh  first  chants  certain  verses  from  the  Koran,  the  der- 
vishes from  time  to  time  bursting  in  with  one  of  the  seven 
exclamations,  or  during  pauses  repeats  "Ya  Allah"  or 
"Ya  Khuba."  In  some  of  the  communities  during  this 
chant  all  are  seated  on  their  heels  rocking  the  whole  body 
from  right  to  left  (or  in  some  orders  the  reverse)  in 
rhythmic  motion.  Some  begin  the  ceremony  standing 
and  continue  it  sitting;  others  begin  standing,  joining 
hands  and  swaying  the  whole  body  in  unison.  The  order 
of  Rufai,  or,  as  they  are  known  to  Europeans,  howling 
dervishes,  and  Mevlevie,  or  whirling  dervishes,  are  the 
most  wealthy.  The  first  was  founded  by  Said  Ahmed 
Refai,  who  died  in  1188  of  our  era,  and  the  second  by 
Dgelal-ed-Khunkeir,  who  died  in  Koniah  in  1273. 
Their  services  are  rather  different  from  that  of  the  others. 

The  Rufai  divide  their  service  into  five  several  parts. 
In  olden  times  they  often  went  into  such  ecstasies  that 
they  seized  in  their  hands  red  hot  iron  and  licked  it,  and 
cut  themselves  with  knives.  Such  extremes  are  now  rare. 

The  order  of  Mevlevie  has  a  peculiar  form  of  initia- 
tion. During  one  thousand  and  one  days  the  neophyte 
has  to  pass  through  a  most  severe  probation.  Whatever 
his  birth,  he  is  obliged  to  do  the  hard  work  in  the  kitchen, 
whence  he  is  styled  the  kara  kulukhchi,  or  black  work- 
man. If  during  this  term  the  candidate  omits  one  day  or 
spends  one  night  outside  the  walls  of  the  tekke  he  has  to 
begin  all  over  again.  At  the  end  of  the  one  thousand  and 
one  days  the  head  cook,  or  aschi  bashi,  presents  the  neo- 
phyte to  the  assembled  dervishes.  The  candidate  goes  to 
the  sheikh,  kisses  his  hand  and  then  seats  himself  opposite 
to  the  sheikh,  and  next  the  cook.  The  sheikh  then  re- 
moves from  the  candidate  his  head-dress  and  recites  verses 
attributed  to  the  founder  of  their  order:  "True  happi- 


20  LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

ness  and  true  greatness  consist  in  closing  the  ear  to  all 
human  passions,  and  the  fruit  of  this  is  the  overwhelming 
power  that  is  given  by  the  blessing  of  the  Prophet"  After 
this  the  sheikh  places  the  headdress  on  the  neophyte  and 
he  and  the  cook  withdraw  to  the  centre  of  the  room,  where 
they  modestly  seat  themselves,  that  is  with  folded  hands 
and  heads  bent  on  the  left  side.  The  sheikh  then  ad- 
dresses the  aschi  bashi  in  the  following  terms:  "May 
the  labour  of  thy  brother  dervish  be  acceptable  to  the 
Ever-existing  and  to  our  Pir.  May  his  praise  be  in- 
creased in  this  nest  of  his  obedient  followers,  in  this  cell  of 
the  poor.  Recite  the  Khubain  in  honour  of  our  Mev- 
lian."  The  assembly  cries  aloud  "Khuba!"  and  the 
ceremony  is  at  an  end. 

Not  entering  into  the  exceedingly  mystic  teachings  of 
these  cults,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  in  the  origin  of  all 
lies  the  one  desire  common  to  all,  that  of  glorifying  God, 
not  only  from  the  heart  and  through  speech,  but  by  the 
outward  movements  of  the  body  that  represent  to  them  a 
harmonious  idea  of  God.  This  is  expressed  in  various 
forms  of  exaltation,  beginning  from  swaying  the  body, 
and  ending  in  knocking  the  head  against  stone  walls,  lick- 
ing hot  iron  or  in  hysterical  fits. 

The  dervishes  live,  as  has  been  said,  in  communities 
called  tekkes,  where  they  are  under  the  absolute  control 
of  the  sheikh.  Each  tekke  possesses  gifts  in  the  form  of 
real  estate  from  the  sultan  and  other  rich  Moslems,  the 
income  of  which  goes  to  the  support  of  the  dervishes  who 
live  in  common  tekkes  or  in  individual  cells.  The  mar- 
ried live  in  private  houses  but  are  obliged  to  be  at  the 
tekke  on  the  eve  of  the  day  when  services  are  held  there. 
As  they  receive  only  food  and  lodging  at  the  tekkes  and 
have  to  clothe  themselves,  most  dervishes  are  obliged  to 
have  some  profession.  Begging  is  strictly  forbidden  to 
all  except  the  cult  of  Bakhtashiyah,  whose  rules  require 


IN   BAGDAD  21 

them  to  live  only  by  what  is  given  them.  Their  formula 
of  begging  is  "  Shean  1'illah,"  which  means,  "  Something, 
for  God's  sake." 

It  is  permitted  to  any  member  to  leave  an  order,  but 
this  is  seldom  done.  Many  Moslems  consider  the  orders 
of  dervishes  as  profanation  of  the  teachings  of  Moham- 
med. Occasionally  even  there  is  a  persecution  of  der- 
vishes. Such  was  the  case  during  the  reign  of  Sultan 
Mohammed  IV.,  but  they  were  saved  owing  to  two  cir- 
cumstances. First,  because  the  founders  of  these  cults 
were  in  every  instance  persons  of  high  standing  in  the 
Moslem  world,  and  secondly,  the  fact  that,  according  to 
the  Moslem  belief,  the  Mohammedan  religion  is  upheld 
by  three  hundred  and  sixty-six  living  saints,  or  holy  ones, 
who  must  exist  as  long  as  does  the  Moslem  religion,  and 
the  belief  that  most  of  these  individuals  are  to  be  found 
among  the  dervish  communities.  In  the  estimation  of 
the  public  most  of  the  saints  are  endowed  with  miracle- 
working  powers,  and  this  can  be  seen  even  now  in  the 
order  of  the  Rufai  when  after  the  service  little  children, 
sometimes  nursing  babes,  and  sick  folk  are  brought  and 
laid  down  for  the  sheikh  to  pass  over.  The  sheikh  walks 
over  their  prostrate  bodies,  stepping  on  each  one,  often 
even  stopping  to  change  from  one  foot  to  the  other  on  the 
same  person  without  apparently  giving  any  pain.  Other 
sick  persons  are  seated  in  front  of  him,  and  he,  fixing  the 
patient  with  his  eye,  gazes  long  and  intently  into  the  pa- 
tient's face  and  finally  blows  on  him  to  exorcise  the  evil 
spirits.  The  sheikh  also  gives  amulets,  charms  and  other 
medical  treatment. 

Among  other  orders  the  sheikhs  are  supposed  to  have 
power  over  snakes,  which  is  passed  down  upon  each  suc- 
cessor. These  sheikhs  are  often  called  in  to  free  a  house 
which  has  become  infested  with  serpents. 

There   are   also   travelling   dervishes;    but   these   are 


22  LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

mostly  persons  who  have  been  expelled  from  some  com- 
munity. Among  such  dervishes  were  the  kalandars  of 
olden  times  that  are  so  often  mentioned  in  the  "  Thou- 
sand and  One  Nights."  The  founder  of  this  order  was 
a  Spanish  moor  from  Andalusia,  Kalandar  Joseph  Anda- 
lousie.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Becktash  and  afterwards  be- 
ing expelled  from  this  community  organised  the  order  of 
Kalandars,  travelling  dervishes  who  live  by  begging. 
One  comes  across  such  travelling  dervishes  all  over  the 
East,  especially  in  Persia  and  central  Asia.  They  sim- 
ply live  a  tramp's  life  justified  by  the  guise  of  dervishes. 
They  are  mostly  opium  smokers,  and  in  general  occupy 
themselves  in  ways  quite  foreign  to  the  requirements  of 
any  religious  cult  whatsoever. 

It  is  a  common  sight  in  Persia  to  see  one  of  these  para- 
sites installed  in  front  of  the  gate  of  some  great  man. 
Sometimes  the  dervish  pitches  a  tiny  tent,  makes  himself 
a  miniature  garden  and  sits  all  day  begging  in  an  arro- 
gant rather  than  an  humble  way.  These  dervishes  often 
resort  to  dramatic  means  of  forcing  alms.  We  once 
found  one  fastened  by  the  neck  to  the  balustrade  of  our 
stairs,  and  he  announced  that  he  would  remain  there,  even 
if  he  starved,  until  we  gave  him  something.  Another 
dervish  settled  himself  in  front  of  our  gate,  where  he 
ploughed,  with  a  tiny  model  of  the  wooden  ploughs  used 
in  the  East,  a  few  square  inches  of  the  unpaved  street.  This 
plot  he  sowed  with  grain  and  then  announced  that  he 
would  remain  until  the  grain  sprouted,  grew,  ripened, 
was  harvested,  and  finally  was  threshed  and  ground  into 
flour,  if  before  that  time  we  had  not  given  him  a  certain 
sum.  In  most  cases  when  it  is  a  Moslem  before  whose 
house  these  dervishes  encamp,  repeating  in  menacing 
tones  "Ya  Hak,"  belief — or  rather,  a  half-superstitious 
fear  of  the  supernatural  power  of  calling  down  curses 
that  these  wild  men  may  possess — generally  obtains  for 
them  what  they  demand. 


CHAPTER  II 

IN  MESOPOTAMIA,  THE  PORTALS  OF  THE  DESERT 

Desert  Politics — Our  Caravan — Goanese — Mendoza  and  Fernando 
— Hamdanie  and  Seglawie — Character  of  Mesopotamia — Nefuds — 
Duradji — Ceremony  of  Meetings  in  the  Desert — In  Camp — Origi- 
nal Adventures  of  Turks  with  Arabs — Ancient  Canals — Duradj 
Shooting — At  the  Wells — First  Acquaintance  with  the  Daughters 
of  the  Desert — The  Disappearance  of  Ahmed — His  Reappearance 
— Unexpected  Results  of  Medical  Treatment — Blood  Feuds. 

A  JOURNEY  into  the  desert  is  accompanied  by  many  hard- 
ships and  privations,  and  those  who  care  first  and  always 
for  their  own  ease  and  comfort  will  do  best  not  to  under- 
take it.  But  those  who  care  for  new  impressions  are  in- 
terested in  the  nomadic  life  of  the  desert,  and  in  visiting 
the  traces  of  the  ancient  civilisation  that  are  to  be  found 
all  through  this  part  of  the  country,  will  feel  amply  re- 
warded for  any  physical  privations  and  sufferings  they 
may  encounter. 

After  passing  the  summer  in  the  dark  and  stuffy  "  ser- 
dabs  "  the  reader  can  understand  how,  with  the  approach 
of  the  cool  season,  we  longed  for  the  freedom  of  the  des- 
ert, and  all  those  who  are  able  to  do  so  make  plans  for 
an  excursion,  and  my  wife  and  I  are  among  these  fortu- 
nate ones.  We  endeavour  to  unite  pleasure  with  profit. 
I  wish  to  get  some  personal  acquaintance  with  the  Arab 
tribes  surrounding  us  and  to  have  some  shooting:  and  my 
wife  is  interested  in  the  ruins,  or  rather  the  traces  now  to 
be  found,  of  Babylon  and  the  four  ancient  cities  built  by 
Nimrod,  "  the  mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord." 

23 


24  LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

After  many-sided  considerations  and  consultations  the 
plans  for  our  journey  are  made.  Waterskins  are  bought, 
the  tents  and  camp  furniture  overhauled,  saddles  and 
guns  put  in  order,  and  last,  but  certainly  not  least,  the 
present  state  of  desert  politics  is  ascertained  from  vari- 
ous sources.  For  even  a  desert  has  its  politics,  the  im- 
portance of  which  the  traveller  who  disregards  them 
finds  to  his  cost.  We  were  obliged  to  find  out  the  rela- 
tions of  one  tribe  to  another,  between  which  ones  was  war 
or  peace,  and  if  our  guides  would  be  able  to  safely  pass 
with  us  from  one  to  another.  After  being  sure  of  a  safe 
conduct  and  guarantee  of  peace,  then,  and  onlv  then, 
could  we  start  with  security. 

To  be  quite  correct  I  informed  the  local  vali,  or  gov- 
ernor general,  of  my  contemplated  trip.  He,  like  all 
Turkish  valis,  was  infected  by  the  mania  of  suspicion,  and 
also  doubtless  realised  that  in  case  of  trouble  in  the  desert 
he  was  quite  powerless  to  save  my  precious  life,  and  so 
tried  by  every  argument  possible  to  dissuade  me  from  my 
project.  Failing  in  this,  he  offered  me  an  escort,  know- 
ing in  advance  that  I  would  decline,  and  then,  having  ful- 
filled all  his  official  obligations  and  cleared  himself  from 
every  responsibility,  gave  a  sigh  of  relief,  and,  wishing 
each  other  all  blessing,  we  parted  in  mutual  satisfaction. 

At  last  all  was  ready,  and  the  day  of  departure  fixed. 
Our  caravan  consisted,  besides  ourselves,  of  Karim,  our 
caravan  bashi,  or  leader  of  the  caravan,  three  grooms,  six- 
teen pack  horses  carrying  our  tents,  kitchen,  provisions, 
barley  for  the  horses,  and  water.  Three  beaters,  four 
Arabs  to  act  as  guides  and  at  night  to  watch  the  camp,  our 
butler  Mendoza  and  cook  Fernando,  the  latter  Indian 
Portuguese,  devout  Roman  Catholics  we  had  brought  up 
from  Bombay  with  us.  Not  to  be  omitted  was  Ahmed, 
a  city-born  Arab,  a  simple-minded  water  carrier,  the  butt 
of  all  the  practical  jokers  in  the  caravan.  In  all  we  mus- 


tered  fifteen  souls  and  thirty-one  horses,  counting  our 
own  mounts. 

In  passing,  a  few  words  about  our  Portuguese  men 
may  be  of  interest.  They  were  both  from  Goa,  the  Portu- 
guese colony  with  a  capital  of  the  same  name.  Goa  is  on 
the  Indian  Ocean  and  south  of  the  Bombay  Presidency; 
it  has  a  fair  haven  and  has  a  certain  pathetic  interest  as 
being  the  last  representative  of  the  palmy  days  of  Portu- 
guese colonial  and  maritime  might  that  dated  back  to  the 
sixteenth  century,  as  many  towers  and  ruined  strongholds 
scattered  all  through  the  Persian  Gulf  bear  witness.  At 
present  the  inhabitants  of  the  entire  colony  of  Goa  are 
estimated  at  about  half  a  million,  mostly  Catholics,  the  de- 
scendants of  the  converts  of  the  apostle  to  the  Indies,  Fran- 
cis Xavier,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Jesuit  order  who 
laboured  and  died  in  Goa.  The  Goanese  are  mostly  half- 
castes,  tracing  their  descent  with  great  pride  to  the  early 
conquerors  and  Indian  mothers.  But  as  in  later  years 
there  was  little  addition  of  European  blood,  the  present 
Goanese  bear  few  traces  of  their  white  ancestors.  They 
are  bronze  in  colour,  with  black  curly  hair,  flat  noses,  and 
remind  one  more  of  the  Negro  type  than  European. 
Their  origin  is  betrayed  only  by  their  names,  de  Sousa,  de 
Gama,  Cortez,  etc.  They  are  excessively  proud  of  their 
forefathers,  and  in  contracting  marriages  the  name  counts 
for  as  much  as  in  the  proudest  time  of  the  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  grandees.  The  jealousy  with  which  these 
families  keep  apart  is  evidently  begotten  by  the  strong 
caste  spirit  prevailing  throughout  India.  Goa  is  a  poor 
colony,  the  principal  industry  being  the  cultivation  of 
rice,  but  in  such  meagre  quantities  as  to  barely  serve  for 
their  own  consumption.  Cocoanuts  and  braided  mats  are 
about  the  only  items  of  export.  Naturally,  therefore,  the 
men  are  forced  to  seek  work  outside  the  country,  the  better 
class  serving  mostly  as  cooks,  butlers  and  musicians  to  the 


26          LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

English  in  India,  and  with  whom  they  get  scattered  to 
many  parts  of  the  world.  Though  separated  in  this  way 
from  their  families,  sometimes  for  years,  they  yet  keep  in 
close  and  tender  touch  with  them,  as  nearly  all  can  write. 
Our  two  servants,  for  instance,  kept  up  a  regular  corre- 
spondence with  their  families  during  all  the  years  that 
they  were  with  us,  and,  as  we  had  occasion  to  know,  faith- 
fully sent  them  all  their  earnings  except  just  what  they 
actually  needed  for  their  own  expenses.  There  were  a 
good  many  of  these  people  in  Bagdad  as  servants,  and  if 
any  one  of  their  number  was  sick,  or  out  of  work,  they 
all  clubbed  together  to  help  him  during  that  time  and  to 
get  him  a  situation.  They  are  generally  excellent  serv- 
ants, knowing  their  profession  thoroughly,  thanks  to  their 
training.  For  instance,  to  get  the  position  of  butler  they 
first  have  to  go  through  a  course  of  several  years  as  cook, 
which  makes  them  invaluable  as  butlers,  for  in  India  the 
heat  makes  it  impossible  for  a  European  housekeeper  to 
enter  into  the  details  of  kitchen  and  shopping,  and  these 
capable  men  are  able  to  take  all  the  responsibility.  It 
is  true  that  one  often  finds  among  them  such  as  are  given 
to  drink,  but  if  one  is  fortunate,  as  we  were,  in  finding 
sober  Goanese,  they  have  the  best  servants  in  the  world. 
We  have  the  warmest  recollections  of  our  faithful  men, 
Mendoza  and  Fernando,  who  during  the  many  years  they 
were  in  our  service  never  once  gave  us  occasion  to  find 
fault  with  them.  Always  good-natured  and  willing,  and 
very  adaptable  in  all  surroundings — provided  the  climate 
was  warm — they  often  proved  themselves  invaluable  to 
our  comfort.  During  trying  journeys  when  women  serv- 
ants would  only  be  a  burden,  Mendoza  turned  nurse,  and 
a  more  tender  or  efficient  one  with  the  baby  would  be  dif- 
ficult to  find.  But  in  cooler  countries  the  Goanese  find 
it  difficult  to  live,  and  our  Mendoza  began  to  cough  in 
Constantinople  in  the  month  of  October  with  the  tempera- 


27 

ture  at  70°  F.,  and  against  dur  mutual  inclinations  we 
were  obliged  to  part  with  him  and  send  him  home. 

But  we  have  with  us  other  inseparable  companions  in 
our  desert  wanderings,  our  pure-blooded  Arab  horse, 
"  Hamdanie,"  that  my  wife  rides,  and  my  own  "  Segla- 
wie,"  both  descendants  of  two  of  the  five  famous  mares 
belonging  to  the  Prophet  Mohammed  (may  whose  ashes 
rest  in  peace,  Alie-hu-salam).  The  Arabs  consider  as 
pure  bred  only  the  five  strains  whose  pedigree  can  be 
traced  back  to  these  five  mares,  two  of  which  were  called 
respectively  Hamdanie  and  Seglawie.  It  is  wonderful 
how  unhesitatingly  an  Arab  will  recognise  a  horse  be- 
longing to  any  of  these  strains.  More  than  once,  when 
passing  some  Arab  encampment  for  the  first  time,  we 
heard  the  Arabs,  on  seeing  our  horses,  exclaim: 

"Hamdanie,  Seglawie!"  and  adding  "Mashallah!" 
(God's  will),  the  highest  form  of  praise  and  also  a  for- 
mula warranted  to  keep  off  the  evil  eye  which  praise 
might  draw  on  the  horses. 

At  last  the  day  set  for  our  departure  arrives.  Long 
before  dawn  we  are  picking  our  way  through  the  narrow, 
dirty  streets  of  sleeping  Bagdad,  and  are  soon  at  the  pon- 
toon bridge  crossing  the  Tigris.  On  the  right  bank  of 
the  river  we  find  ourselves  in  Mesopotamia.  When  as 
yet  a  child,  pictures  of  the  desert  would  present  them- 
selves very  vividly  to  my  mind  as  a  vast  plain  of  rolling 
sand,  broken  by  occasional  oases.  In  reality  all  the 
desert  that  lies  between  the  rapid,  muddy  Tigris  and  the 
clear  sparkling  stream  of  her  sister,  the  Euphrates,  can 
only  be  called  a  desert  on  account  of  the  absence  of  cul- 
tivation and  irrigation.  But  the  soil  is  of  the  richest 
loam,  capable  of  being  transformed  into  a  blossoming 
garden  during  certain  seasons  of  the  year.  At  high 
water,  during  the  months  of  February  and  March,  the 
tract  between  the  two  rivers  forms  a  veritable  lake,  the 


28  LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

home  of  flocks  of  water  fowl.  The  water,  to  be  sure,  is  not 
deep,  from  a  foot  to  eighteen  inches,  and  when  it  subsides 
the  desert  becomes  covered  with  the  most  luxuriant  car- 
pet of  grass  and  flowers,  which,  alas!  dry  up  in  May,  and 
again  the  term  desert  is  not  out  of  place.  With  compara- 
tively little  pains  and  expense  all  of  Mesopotamia  could 
again  be  the  fertile  country  it  was  in  the  time  of  the  hang- 
ing gardens.  As  the  summer  advances  with  its  fierce 
heat,  the  soil  becomes  dry,  and  crossed  by  great  cracks 
covered  here  and  there  with  bits  of  dried  grass  or  forlorn- 
looking  bushes,  and  once  this  place  was  covered  with 
forests  that  passed  entirely  away  only  in  the  last  century! 

It  is  only  west  of  the  Euphrates  that  the  desert  proper 
begins,  the  El-Hamud,  and  south  of  it  the  great  Nefud, 
answering  to  my  early  conceptions  of  it.  Here  for  hun- 
dreds of  miles  stretches  the  vast,  sandy  desert,  with  its 
horseshoe-shaped  dunes,  such  as  those  seen  in  Trans- 
caspia,  through  which  with  almost  superhuman  struggle 
the  railway  was  built  between  the  Caspian  and  Bokhara. 
Here  one  finds  the  real  desert  the  symbol  of  death,  and  it 
is  with  no  feeling  of  surprise  that  the  traveller  notes  the 
skeletons  of  camels  and  perchance  of  human  beings  that 
mark  the  whole  way  down  to  Nejd,  the  cradle  of  the  Arab 
and  the  home  of  the  real  Bedouin. 

We  move  on  slowly  but  gaily  until  about  ten  o'clock 
the  sun  begins  to  make  itself  felt  and  we  think  of  calling 
a  halt.  A  suitable  spot  found,  a  tent  is  quickly  pitched 
and  the  cooks  are  busy  about  their  improvised  stoves.  At 
two  o'clock,  after  a  good  rest,  and  after  having  watered 
our  horses  from  the  skins  carried  with  us,  we  start  on 
again  in  order  to  reach  the  first  wells  before  night.  The 
landscape  continues  to  present  the  same  monotonous  fea- 
tures ;  here  and  there  are  to  be  seen  dry  shrubs,  or  such 
bushes  as  have  long  roots  that  reach  down  to  the  moisture 
of  the  lower  strata. 


IN   MESOPOTAMIA  29 

"  Duradji!  "  suddenly  cries  out  one  of  our  beaters,  slip- 
ping quickly  off  his  horse  and  running  toward  some 
bushes  just  off  the  track.  Picking  up  the  corners  of  his 
burnoose  and  flapping  them,  he  runs  round  and  round 
in  ever  narrowing  circles  and  continuing  to  wave  his 
cloak. 

"  Where  is  the  duradj?  "  I  ask,  overtaking  the  Arab. 

"  Here,"  he  says  in  a  stage  whisper.  "  Look  under  the 
bush — see,  he  is  turning  his  head — shoot!  for  Allah's  sake, 
Effendi,  shoot!"  And  he  continues  breathlessly  to  circle 
and  to  wave  his  burnoose.  The  sweat  rolled  in  drops 
from  the  poor  man,  who  fairly  trembled  in  his  anxiety  to 
make  me  see  and  kill  this  coveted  desert  game,  a  bird  re- 
minding one  somewhat  of  our  grey  partridge.  But  try 
as  I  might  I  could  not  see  the  duradj,  although  in  our 
northern  woods  I  could  easily  distinguish  a  wood  hen 
crouching  on  the  bough  of  a  tree,  which,  as  all  sportsmen 
know,  is  not  an  easy  thing  to  do. 

"  Can't  you  see  it,  Effendi?  "  imploringly  whispers  the 
Arab  again,  and  then  in  despair  throws  himself  with 
outspread  burnoose  flat  on  to  the  little  bush,  hoping  to 
catch  the  bird  in  his  hands,  but  it  slips  out  and  takes  to 
flight.  I  raise  my  gun  and  fire  twice,  but  the  bird  sails 
merrily  off,  and  the  Arab,  breathing  heavily,  gazes  at  me 
with  eyes  full  of  mute  reproach. 

There  are  many  duradji  to  be  found  in  these  places, 
and  the  Arabs  have  an  original  way  of  their  own  in  hunt- 
ing them,  based  on  the  known  timidity  of  the  bird.  As 
soon  as  their  sharp  eyes  spy  the  game,  an  almost  impossi- 
ble thing  for  a  stranger  to  do  at  first,  as  its  plumage  is  the 
exact  colour  of  the  desert  sand,  the  "  sportsman  "  gets  be- 
tween his  victim  and  the  sun  and  begins  to  advance,  flap- 
ping his  burnoose.  The  bird,  taking  the  shadow  thus 
cast  for  a  huge  bird  of  prey,  crouches  flat  against  the 
earth. 


30          LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

The  Arabs  are  very  economical  of  using  powder  and 
so  charge  their  guns  with  less  than  half  a  thimbleful  of 
powder  and  with  very  little  shot,  and  then,  to  avoid  any 
chance  of  missing,  circle  up  till  they  are  within  touch  al- 
most of  the  crouching  bird  and  fire.  Naturally,  with 
such  a  small  charge,  this  is  the  only  way  of  killing  a  bird, 
and  the  danger  of  missing  at  such  close  range  is  not  very 
formidable. 

We  overtake  the  caravan  and  go  on  for  another  couple 
of  hours.  The  sun  begins  to  sink  and  the  breeze  to  have 
a  little  coolness  that  freshens  up  the  whole  party,  includ- 
ing the  horses.  Suddenly  the  caravan  bashi  reins  up  his 
horse  and  rising  in  his  stirrups  shades  his  eyes  with  his 
hand  and  gazes  intently  into  the  distance.  One  of  the 
guides  rides  up  to  him  and  both  study  the  horizon,  carry- 
ing on  an  animated  discussion.  It  seems  they  have  dis- 
covered horsemen  coming  towards  us.  I  strain  my  eyes 
and  see  absolutely  nothing  but  the  rolling  desert.  My 
wife  can  see  nothing,  neither  do  our  Indians  nor  the 
town-bred  Ahmed.  A  few  minutes  pass  and  our  Arabs 
count  fifteen  riders,  and  yet  we  can  distinguish  noth- 
ing! 

The  keen  eyes  of  these  Arabs  are  wonderful.  Their 
life  in  the  wide  expanse  of  the  desert,  where  their  very 
existence  often  depends  upon  their  farsightedness,  ena- 
bling them  to  discover  an  enemy,  or  a  bit  of  green  mark- 
ing water  at  a  great  distance,  develops  their  vision  as  it 
does  in  the  case  of  the  Turkomans  and  Kirghizes  of  cen- 
tral Asia. 

After  some  time  I  see  dots  on  the  horizon  that  gradu- 
ally become  more  distinct  and  begin  to  take  shape.  At 
last  we  are  near  enough  to  make  out  the  colour  of  the 
horses.  Our  escort  unsling  their  berdans  and  lay  them 
across  the  saddle  in  front  of  them  and  we  continue  slowly 
to  approach  each  other. 


IN   MESOPOTAMIA  31 

"  Jereffa!"  (the  name  of  an  Arab  tribe)  suggests  one 
of  our  men. 

"No,  Shamars!"  says  our  caravan  bashi. 

But  hardly  are  the  words  out  of  his  mouth  when  the 
strangers  put  their  horses  to  a  run  and  with  spears  bal- 
anced sweep  down  upon  us  like  the  wind.  Our  caravan 
bashi  gallops  forward  to  meet  them  and  we  all  follow  his 
example  with  more  or  less  sinking  of  the  heart,  and  Men- 
doza  and  Fernando,  whose  bronze  skins  are  incapable  of 
turning  pale,  become  a  bluish  yellow.  The  cook  gallops 
madly  on,  with  his  pots  and  kettles  beating  an  accom- 
panying jingle  in  the  saddle  bags.  We  tear  on  for  some 
rods,  when,  as  we  approach  each  other,  both  parties  stop 
short  as  if  by  command — all  excepting  poor  Fernando, 
who  continues  his  way  flying  over  the  horse's  head  and 
after  turning  one  or  two  somersaults  in  the  air  sits  up 
on  the  ground  blinking  in  amazement,  while  everyone  is 
too  much  occupied  to  take  any  notice  of  him.  Both  parties 
stand  within  twenty  feet  of  each  other  in  silence  for  a  few 
seconds. 

"Who  are  you?  Where  from?  Whence  going,  and 
why?"  etc. 

Our  caravan  bashi  satisfies  their  curiosity  and  then  in 
turn  cross-examines  them.  It  appears  that  the  strangers 
are  Shamars,  going  to  carry  on  some  negotiations  with  an- 
other tribe  and  are  peaceably  inclined.  These  prelimi- 
naries being  at  an  end  and  both  parties  being  relieved,  we 
become  quite  sociable.  We  give  them  all  the  city  news 
and  they  give  us  that  of  the  desert.  The  sheikh  of  such 
and  such  a  tribe  is  ill;  another  is  preparing  for  his  mar- 
riage with  the  daughter  of  the  sheikh  of  a  neighbouring 
tribe,  and  therefore  there  is  hope  of  an  alliance  and 
friendship  between  these  tribes  instead  of  the  enmity  long 
existing  among  them.  This  alliance,  and  all  the  possible 
results  arising  from  it,  are  gravely  and  exhaustively  dis- 


32  LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

cussed  by  both  parties.  Then  water  is  offered  to  the  new- 
comers, and  with  many  good  wishes  and  consigning  each 
other  to  the  care  of  Allah,  we  continue  our  several  ways. 

This  is  the  usual  desert  way  of  meeting  with  everyone 
the  traveller  encounters,  either  friend  or  foe,  according  to 
circumstances  or  the  politics  of  the  day.  But  it  is  not 
always  that  these  encounters  end  as  peaceably  as  did  ours. 
Often  the  spears  are  brought  into  play  and  with  the  blunt 
end  the  rider  is  unhorsed  (the  real  Arab  rides  without  a 
saddle),  and  according  to  the  desert  law  the  horse  be- 
comes the  property  of  the  more  skilful  or  lucky  party. 
Occasionally,  but  rarely,  these  affairs  have  a  bloody  end. 

But  here  it  is  sunset,  and  we  have  reached  our  wells, 
but  alas,  there  is  no  water!  We  find,  too,  that  our  bril- 
liant water  carrier  has  forgotten  to  bring  the  ropes  so 
necessary  for  procuring  water  from  these  deep  wells! 
All  our  men,  with  rare  unanimity,  fall  upon  the  unlucky 
man,  calling  him  the  "father  of  stupidity"  and  the 
"  father  of  a  donkey,"  and  so  overwhelm  him  with  re- 
proaches that  the  poor  fellow  finds  no  answer.  For  the 
present  his  carelessness  affects  us  less  since  there  is  no 
water  in  any  of  the  wells,  and  we  shall  have  to  make 
what  the  skins  contain  do  for  ourselves  and  a  small  quan- 
tity for  each  horse,  and  for  to-morrow  we  will  see — if  we 
find  wells  we  can  perhaps  make  the  horses'  halters  do 
service. 

The  camp  is  soon  taking  pn  shape,  tents  are  going  up, 
Fernando  is  rattling  his  pots  merrily  and  blowing  his  fire, 
Mendoza  is  putting  up  camp  beds  and  setting  out  the 
foldingchairs,  while  the  grooms  are  unsaddling  the  horses 
and  getting  the  leg  ropes  ready.  In  a  little  over  an  hour 
our  supper  is  ready  and  then  around  the  various  camp 
fires  begin  low-toned  conversations,  mostly  turning  on  the 
events  of  the  day's  march,  of  desert  and  hunting  episodes 
of  the  present  vali  and  the  various  Arab  tribes. 


33 

I  always  love  this  hour.  Sitting  at  the  door  of  our 
tent  in  my  easy  camp-chair,  under  the  bright  stars  and 
listening  to  their  chat,  I  often  get  much  that  is  useful  as 
to  the  ideas  and  ways  of  thinking  of  these  people,  and  of 
their  judgment  of  events  of  local  interest. 

At  an  early  hour  the  next  morning  the  caravan  is  mov- 
ing. For  miles  we  follow  the  lines  of  gigantic  canals 
that  bear  silent  witness  to  the  high  state  of  culture  once 
enjoyed  by  these  lands.  Along  these  canals,  still  deep 
enough  in  places  to  hide  a  horse  and  his  rider,  the  growth 
of  bushes  becomes  almost  like  a  low  jungle. 

Suddenly  we  hear  a  characteristic  cry  and  whizz,  a 
duradj  raised  by  one  of  the  dogs.  I  spring  from  my 
horse,  throwing  the  reins  to  one  of  the  men,  and  run  into 
the  brush.  Whizz — dash — another  duradj!  I  fire  and 
miss.  Another,  with  the  same  result,  but  finally  luck 
turns  and  I  have  a  pair  of  beauties  for  our  supper.  I  re- 
trace my  steps  to  where  the  man  is  holding  Seglawie,  and 
we  gallop  on  to  overtake  the  caravan,  and  hand  over  the 
birds  to  Fernando,  whose  bronzed  face  shines  with  pleas- 
ure as  he  takes  them,  saying  in  his  broken  English : 

"  Nice  roast,  sir." 

We  come  to  some  wells,  where  we  camp,  intending  to 
make  this  our  headquarters  while  exploring  the  vicinity, 
and  later  to  go  on  and  visit  some  of  the  nomadic  tribes 
that  interest  me.  The  sun  seems  hotter  and  harder  to 
bear  than  usual,  and  our  horses,  that  have  received  but  a 
few  swallows  of  water,  are  lagging  heavily,  when  the 
sight  of  the  wells  rouses  them  as  well  as  ourselves.  As 
we  draw  near  to  the  wells  we  see  Arab  women  who 
have  come  from  a  near  encampment  for  water.  We  see 
them  drawing  up  water  in  leather  buckets  by  means  of 
ropes,  but  as  soon  as  they  spied  us  they  fled,  and,  what  in- 
terested us  most,  carrying  with  them  the  ropes  on  which 
we  had  set  our  eyes.  This  roused  our  men  to  a  fresh  at- 


34          LIFE  IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

tack  upon  the  unlucky  Ahmed.  We  dismount  and  on 
examining  the  wells  find  them  to  be  extremely  deep,  and 
a  discussion  arises  as  to  whether  all  our  horses'  ropes 
united  will  suffice.  But  feminine  curiosity  comes  to  our 
aid.  The  sharp  eyes  of  our  caravan  bashi  discover  the 
figures  of  the  women  crouching  in  the  brush  and  eagerly 
watching  us.  But  no  amount  of  coaxing  nor  compli- 
ments would  induce  them  to  lend  us  their  ropes,  and  when 
one  of  our  men  showed  intentions  of  going  nearer  to  them, 
these  wild  daughters  of  the  desert  fled  like  gazelles  and 
came  to  a  stand  again  among  the  bushes  at  a  distance. 
Some  one  suggested  making  a  flank  movement  and  sur- 
rounding them,  but  in  view  of  the  complications  sure  to 
arise  from  such  decided  measures,  this  plan  was  dropped. 
Finally  my  wife  suggested  her  going  alone  and  trying  to 
convince  them  of  our  good  intentions,  and  as  proof  of 
which,  to  offer  them  some  coins  that  are  understood  even 
in  the  desert.  Whether  it  was  the  eloquence  of  my  wife 
or  the  effect  the  sight  of  the  money  had,  the  result  was 
that  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour  she  returned  in  triumph  ac- 
companied by  four  women.  In  less  time  than  it  takes  to 
tell,  the  ropes  were  lowered,  the  horses,  fully  under- 
standing the  significance,  snorting  and  pulling  at  their 
bridles  to  get  nearer  the  well,  where  a  drinking  trough 
had  been  made  by  the  Arabs  by  digging  a  hollow  basin 
and  plastering  it  with  mud.  The  water  proved  to  be  tol- 
erably good,  though  it  had  a  decidedly  earthy  taste,  but 
we  were  all  too  thirsty  to  be  critical.  Filling  our  water 
skins,  we  move  on  for  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  where  we 
camp.  The  tents  are  soon  pitched,  a  hurriedly  prepared 
meal  done  justice  to,  and  we  give  ourselves  up  to  a  luxu- 
rious rest,  idly  listening  to  the  conversation  carried  on 
between  our  own  men  and  the  Arab  guides.  They  are 
discussing  the  defeat  of  the  Turks  by  the  Shamar  tribe 
mat  had  taken  place  a  few  years  previously.  This  tribe, 


IN   MESOPOTAMIA  35 

it  seems,  refused  to  pay  a  tax  that  the  Turks  had  levied 
upon  them  and  orders  had  come  for  a  company  of  regular 
Turkish  troops  to  march  into  the  desert  and  forcibly  col- 
lect the  tax.  The  troops  hesitated  to  enter  the  desert, 
where  the  Arabs  were  at  home,  while  the  troops  would 
need  large  quantities  of  provisions,  fodder,  water,  etc.  At 
that  time  the  Arabs  were  armed  principally  with  spears 
and  muskets,  rifles  being  seldom  met  with.  But  the  fact 
of  their  being  as  familiar  with  the  desert  as  with  their 
five  fingers,  immured  to  hardships,  and  they  and  their 
horses  possessing  great  powers  of  endurance,  being  able 
to  make  seventy-five  miles  without  water,  and  sustaining 
life  on  a  handful  of  dates — the  main  article  of  food  for 
man  and  beast — gave  them  an  enormous  advantage. 

The  expedition  was  sent  out  in  the  winter,  when  the 
nomadic  Shamars  are  encamping  near  Bagdad,  where 
th£y  come  to  buy  dates,  their  chief  support,  as  well  as 
coffee  and  other  articles  necessary  for  their  simple  life. 
The  plan  of  campaign  drawn  by  the  local  staff  of  the 
Turkish  army  ended  in  a  fiasco,  thanks  to  a  clever  ruse 
that  would  only  enter  the  head  of  these  desert  children. 
The  Arabs  in  a  short  time  collected  over  two  thousand 
camels.  "  The  ship  of  the  desert "  with  all  its  good  quali- 
ties is  not  noted  for  sagacity,  and  is  easily  given  to  stam- 
peding. At  such  times  it  is  ready  to  run  for  miles  in  a 
straight  line,  regardless  of  obstacles.  When  the  camels 
were  gathered,  the  Arabs  loaded  them  with  saddle  bags 
filled  with  sand  and  approached  the  Turkish  camp  dur- 
ing the  night.  They  then  made  holes  in  the  bags,  after 
which  they  frightened  the  camels  in  a  way  known  to 
themselves,  and  stampeded  the  whole  herd,  which,  ac- 
companied by  the  shouting  Arabs,  poured  like  a  flood 
into  the  camp,  bringing  about  a  confusion  and  panic  that 
was  increased  by  the  dust  and  sand  sifting  through  the 
bags.  The  camels  crushed  everything  in  their  way  as  the 


36          LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

cries  and  confusion  of  the  camp  increased  their  fright. 
The  result  was  that  the  entire  camp  fell  into  the  Arabs' 
hands  without  the  latter  losing  a  man. 

After  a  good  rest  and  having  watered  the  horses,  we 
start  out  on  an  exploring  expedition  with  four  of  our 
shikaries,  a  groom,  and  Ahmed  with  his  waterskin.  We 
soon  come  upon  some  mounds,  the  site  of  one  of  the  most 
anciently  recorded  cities.  Before  sunset  we  have  visited 
a  number  of  these  mounds  and  then  turn  to  go  back  to 
camp  with  some  disappointment,  for  we  had  expected  to 
see  something  that  at  least  bore  traces  of  a  ruined  city. 

We  are  riding  quite  rapidly  when  we  notice  hiding 
among  the  bushes  an  Arab.  I  have  time  to  get  a  glimpse 
of  the  "  kafiyah,"  the  usual  head-dress,  consisting  of  a 
fringed  silk  handkerchief  thrown  over  the  head  so  as  to 
form  a  complete  shelter,  only  leaving  the  face  exposed, 
and  held  in  place  by  a  rope  wound  round  the  crown  of 
the  head.  From  under  the  head-dress  the  long  braided 
locks  that  the  men  wear  fall  about  his  shoulders.  He 
approaches  Ahmed,  who  after  some  talk  dismounts  and 
begins  to  untie  the  waterskin  and  to  give  the  stranger  a 
drink.  The  rest  of  us  push  on,  thinking  of  our  camp  and 
the  welcome  supper  that  by  now  is  awaiting  us.  I  get 
several  shots  at  duradji  on  the  way,  but  ill-luck  is  surely 
following  me,  for  not  a  bird  drops  to  my  bag  until  the 
fifth  shot  brings  down  a  fine  hen.  Overtaking  the  cara- 
van we  go  on  for  another  half  hour,  and  we  come  in  sight 
of  the  white  tents  of  our  camp,  where  the  smoke  rising 
from  the  cook's  quarters  tells  that  a  good  supper  is  pre- 
pared for  us.  We  dismount  with  that  pleasant  physical 
fatigue  mingled  with  a  feeling  of  peace  with  the  whole 
.world,  that  one  only  gets  from  long  horseback  riding. 
'After  a  wash  we  sit  in  the  long  camp-chairs  at  the  door 
of  the  tent  waiting  for  the  supper  to  be  served.  As  we  sit 
there  we  hear  the  soft  tinkle  of  the  head  bells,  mixed  with 


TOMB  OF  ZOBEIDA,  HAROUN-AL-RASHID'S  FAVORITE  WIFE 


IN  MESOPOTAMIA  37 

the  deep  bass  dong  of  the  huge  bells  hung  from  the  camel 
saddles,  announcing  an  approaching  caravan.  We 
watch  the  "pashang,"  as  the  gaily  caparisoned  leader 
of  the  caravan  is  called,  come  in  sight.  A  word  as  to 
these  horses  may  not  be  devoid  of  interest.  They  are 
trained  to  lead  caravans  and  are  as  proud  of  their  posi- 
tion as  any  human  being  could  be,  and  if  any  of  the  other 
horses  tries  to  get  ahead,  the  pashang  will  resent  it  and 
by  snapping  at  him  try  to  head  him  off  and  drive  back 
the  insolent  upstart.  However  tired  after  a  long  march, 
and  however  heavy  the  load,  these  brave  horses  will 
struggle  to  keep  at  the  front.  One  we  once  saw  of  whose 
pluck  the  "  charvadars,"  or  muleteers,  had  taken  an  un- 
fair advantage  and  loaded  with  heavy  boxes  that  none  of 
the  other  beasts  could  carry.  In  spite  of  being  so  over- 
loaded, the  gallant  pashang  kept  at  the  head  of  the  cara- 
van until  blood  gushed  from  his  mouth  and  nose  and  he 
finally  dropped  dead — surely  as  true  a  hero  as  any  human 
being  falling  at  his  post  of  duty. 

As  the  caravan  looms  in  sight  we  see  that  each  ani- 
mal is  carrying  long,  narrow  boxes  that  stand  out  in 
sharp  contrast  against  the  rosy  evening  sky,  and  as  the  long 
string  in  single  file  come  out  of  the  gathering  dusk,  the 
deep-toned  bells  fall  upon  our  ears  with  a  weird  feeling 
as  of  a  funeral  knell,  for  all  those  long  boxes  are  full  of 
the  bones,  or  in  some  cases  the  comparatively  fresh  bodies, 
of  Moslems  whose  faithful  friends  and  relatives  are 
taking  for  burial  in  sacred  ground.  As  the  last  notes  of 
the  caravan  bells  die  away,  we  are  glad  to  be  aroused  from 
the  rather  grim  reflections  caused  by  this  procession  of 
the  dead,  by  the  cheerful  call  to  supper.  I  have  not  had 
time  for  more  than  a  swallow  of  soup  that  seemed  unusu- 
ally savory  when  the  caravan  bashi  enters  the  tent.  At 
the  first  glance  at  his  face  I  see  that  something  unusual 
has  happened. 


38          LIFE   IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

"  Effendi,"  he  says,  "  Ahmed  has  not  come,  and  his 
horse  has  just  returned  to  camp  riderless.  What  are 
your  orders?" 

"Where  can  he  be?"  I  exclaim,  "We  must  send  one 
or  two  men  on  horseback  to  search  for  him." 

•"  Had  we  better  not  wait  a  bit?  "  suggested  the  caravan 
bashi. 

"Who  saw  him  last,  and  where?" 

"  That  is  what  I  have  inquired,"  answered  the  man, 
"  and  it  seems  that  since  he  was  seen  talking  with  the  un- 
known Arab,  who  asked  for  a  drink,  no  one  remembers 
seeing  him.  We  thought  he  was  following  on  slowly,  and 
were  not  troubled,  but  now  the  horse  has  come  and  no 
Ahmed.  There  is  nothing  good  to  expect  from  him ;  he 
is  the  father  of  all  stupidity  and  has  probably  lost  his 
way — though  the  stars  are  out  and  any  child  could  find 
the  camp,"  he  ended,  glancing  out  at  the  tent  door  at  the 
sky,  where  by  this  time  the  stars  were  shining  in  all  the 
glory  of  the  Eastern  nights.  I  kept  silent,  but  thought  to 
myself  that  though  not  a  child,  I  should  not  like  to  be  left 
in  the  desert  to  find  the  camp  by  such  means  alone. 

It  was  finally  decided  to  send  off  at  once  three  horse- 
men in  search  of  our  ne'er-do-well.  My  wife  and  I,  left 
to  our  soup,  began  to  discuss  the  situation,  and  the  various 
mishaps  that  may  have  come  to  our  unlucky  retainer,  for 
the  chances  of  his  getting  out  of  any  scrape  seemed  small 
in  view  of  his  abnormal  stupidity.  And  this  leads  to 
reminiscences  of  the  various  occasions  on  which  he  has 
distinguished  himself.  A  picture  rises  before  us  of  one 
night  after  a  dinner  party  when  we,  with  all  our  guests 
in  the  drawing-room,  drinking  Turkish  coffee,  were 
startled  by  a  terrible  crash,  as  if  a  whole  crockery  shop 
had  gone  to  pieces.  On  rushing  out  onto  the  open  ve- 
randa to  make  inquiries  we  found  that  Ahmed  in  his  capa- 
city of  dishwasher  had  just  emptied  a  large  dishpan  of 


IN   MESOPOTAMIA  39 

water  from  the  window  into  the  courtyard  below.  Now 
this  was  strictly  forbidden,  but  probably  the  joy  of  break- 
ing rules  made  him  forget  that  the  dishpan  contained, 
besides  water,  at  least  a  dozen  pieces  'of  our  best  dinner 
service  that  had  come  to  grief  on  the  hard  stone  pavemem; 
below! 

We  spent  half  an  hour — an  hour,  and  a  second  hour 
passed  in  waiting,  and  at  last  the  caravan  bashi  returned, 
leading  Ahmed.  At  first  I  hardly  recognised  the  man, 
he  seemed  smaller,  shrivelled  and  bent,  and  the  few  wits 
he  ever  possessed  had  evidently  deserted  him,  for  to  all 
our  questions  he  answered  by  a  wholly  unintelligible  stam- 
mering. The  caravan  bashi  suggested  a  cup  of  coffee, 
that  Arab  panacea  for  all  mental  woes,  as  it  is  the  actual 
cautery  for  physical  ills.  To  the  coffee  my  wife  and  I 
decided  to  add  some  brandy  and  a  dose  of  bromide  from 
our  travelling  medicine  case.  The  result  of  the  combina- 
tion was  decided  but  unexpected.  Ahmed  promptly  went 
off  into  a  sound  sleep  and  we  were  forced  to  leave  the 
unravelling  of  the  mystery  until  the  next  day. 

Early  the  following  morning  on  looking  out  of  the 
tent  door  I  saw  Ahmed  seated  on  the  ground  and  sur- 
rounded by  the  entire  camp.  He  had  again  resumed  his 
usual  good-humoured  dull  look  and  seemed  to  be  enjoy- 
ing his  unwonted  notoriety.  I  joined  the  listeners  and 
heard  the  following  account  of  his  adventures. 

It  seems  that  the  Arab  who  had  asked  for  water  was 
nearly  exhausted  from  thirst,  as  he  had  had  nothing  to 
drink  for  two  days.  He  had  been  in  hiding  from  some 
men  of  a  tribe  from  whom  he  had  carried  off  a  girl  and  he 
begged  to  be  saved  from  their  vengeance.  Anyone  in  Ah- 
med's place  could  easily  have  done  so  by  taking  the  man 
up  behind  him  and  riding  after  us,  for  at  that  time  we 
were  yet  in  sight.  Ahmed,  however,  wasted  precious  time 
in  aimless  questions  and  so  sealed  the  fate  of  the  poor  fel- 


40          LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

low.  Seeing  that  we  were  at  some  distance,  several  Arabs 
sprang  up  from  the  bushes  where  they  had  been  in  hiding 
so  long  as  we  were  near,  and  falling  upon  their  victim 
with  daggers  while  he  was  writhing  on  the  ground  in  his 
death  agony,  they  cut  out  his  yet  palpitating  heart,  and, 
dividing  it,  each  man  ate  a  piece;  in  this  way  wiping  out 
the  disgrace  their  tribe  had  suffered.  Having  satisfied 
their  awful  sense  of  vengeance,  the  Arabs  began  to  discuss 
what  to  do  with  Ahmed,  who  had  stood,  more  dead  than 
alive,  an  unwilling  witness  of  the  terrible  deed.  Some 
were  for  killing  him  for  fear  he  would  betray  them. 
Others  claimed  that  it  was  to  their  advantage  to  let  him 
live  and  tell  how  their  tribe  knew  how  to  repay  an  in- 
jury. The  latter  opinion  prevailed  and  it  was  decided  to 
spare  Ahmed,  but  he  was  kept  there  some  time  and  in 
the  meanwhile  his  horse  had  found  its  way  to  the  camp. 
They  told  how  they  had  lain  in  the  bushes  all  the  hours 
we  were  there  and  how  on  several  occasions  one  or  an- 
other of  our  party  had  almost  stepped  upon  them  as  they 
crouched  in  the  bushes.  Finally  Ahmed  was  allowed  to 
go  free,  but  he  was  so  horror-stricken  by  what  he  had  seen 
and  haunted  with  the  fear  that  the  Arabs  might  change 
their  mind  and  follow  after  him  and  kill  him,  that  his 
knees  shook  and  often  failed  him  altogether  and  he  would 
fall.  Stumbling  and  running,  he  had  at  last  reached 
the  camp  in  the  speechless  condition  described. 

These  reminiscences,  to  one  not  acquainted  with  the 
East  and  its  ways,  and  the  blood  feud  in  particular,  may 
seem  almost  incredible.  But  unfortunately  they  are  facts, 
and  during  the  many  years  spent  in  the  East  I  have  re- 
peatedly known  cases  where,  under  the  protection  of  the 
law  of  blood  feud,  or  some  other  religious  prejudices, 
crimes,  even  murders,  were  committed,  often  passing 
down  from  generation  to  generation,  founded  on  the  old 
doctrine  of  "  an  eye  for  an  eye  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth." 


IN   MESOPOTAMIA  41 

I  shall  have  occasion  in  another  chapter  to  refer  in  de- 
tail to  this  custom  that  will  place  the  incident  just  re- 
lated in  its  true  light,  and  if  it  will  not  furnish  extenu- 
ating circumstances,  it  will  at  least  explain  the  psychology 
of  such  acts. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  RUINS  OF  BABYLON  AND  AMONG  THE  KURDS 

AND  YEZIDIS 

Hillah,  its  Population — Cuneiform  Tablets — Ruins  of  Babylon — The 
Work  of  Turning  the  Euphrates — Ruins  of  Nimrod  or  Aker  Rouff — 
Kurds  in  the  Himrin  Mountains — Character  of  Kurds — Invasion  of 
Urumiah  by  Sheikh  Obeidullah — Yezidis — Devil  Worshippers — Sect 
of  All  Allahis. 

THE  next  day  we  start  on  to  visit  the  camp  of  a  sheikh 
of  my  acquaintance.  Two  days'  march  brings  us  to  the 
small  town  of  Hillah,  the  administrative  centre  of  the 
district  of  the  same  name.  The  Euphrates  divides  this 
province  from  east  to  west,  watering  it  by  means  of 
canals.  One,  the  Mekhoul,  was  dug  by  Haroun-al-Ra- 
shid,  the  other,  Nahr,  by  the  Persian  Shah  Abbas  the 
Great.  Aside  from  these  there  are  about  ten  other  canals 
of  ancient  date.  Thanks  to  this  artificial  irrigation  palm 
groves  are  met  with  quite  frequently,  and  in  the  district 
of  Hillah  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  as  many  as  half 
a  million  date  palms.  All  of  the  dates  raised  here  are 
consumed  by  the  Arabs  of  two  tribes,  the  Shamar  and 
Aneizeh,  who  migrate  towards  Hillah  in  the  autumn  to 
buy  their  year's  supply. 

The  population  of  this  district  does  not  exceed  thirty 
thousand,  while  in  the  city  of  Hillah  itself  there  are  not 
more  than  eight  thousand  souls.  All  the  houses  are  one- 
storied  and  mostly  built  of  bricks  taken  from  the  ruins 
of  Babylon.  The  city  is  greatly  spread  out  owing  to  the 
fact  that  nearly  every  house  is  surrounded  by  its  garden 

42 


THE   RUINS  OF  BABYLON  43 

of  palms,  lemon,  orange  and  pomegranate  trees.  The  city 
f  Hillah  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Euphrates, 
across  which  a  pontoon  bridge  is  thrown. 

The  city  occupies  the  site  of  the  ruined  city  of  Baby- 
lon, which  was  explored  at  a  comparatively  recent  date, 
1848,  by  Layard.  From  that  time,  thanks  to  discovering 
the  key  to  the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  the  archaeologists 
have  been  able  by  deciphering  the  many  cylinders  and 
other  inscriptions  found  in  the  excavations  to  get  a  pretty 
clear  idea  of  the  peculiar  but  high  culture  achieved  at 
that  epoch.  The  cylinders  that  are  found  in  such  num- 
bers are  generally  contracts  of  sales  and  give  the  date 
and  name  of  the  king  during  whose  reign  the  transaction 
took  place.  These  cylinders  can  be  bought  anywhere  in 
Bagdad  and  Hillah,  but  an  amateur  can  easily  get  a 
worthless  purchase,  as  they  are  cleverly  imitated. 
Even  if  a  genuine  one  is  bought  its  intrinsic  value  depends 
upon  whether  the  date  and  the  name  of  the  king  men- 
tioned throw  any  new  light  on  already  known  dynasties 
or  events. 

The  city's  history  practically  begins  with  the  royal 
house  called  the  Dynasty  of  Babylon,  consisting  of  eleven 
kings  who  reigned  in  all  about  299  years,  beginning  ap- 
proximately 2,000  years  before  Christ.  Babylon  reached 
the  apogee  of  its  glory  during  the  reign  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. According  to  Herodotus,  who  lived  a  century 
later,  the  city  was  built  on  both  sides  of  the  river  in  the 
form  of  a  square,  each  side  being  nearly  sixteen  miles 
long.  It  was  surrounded  by  a  moat  and  wall,  the  latter 
pierced  by  100  gates;  the  walls  were  87  metres  high  and 
17  broad.  All  the  principal  buildings  were  constructed 
of  bricks  made  with  bitumen.  These  bricks  bore  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's name  in  cuneiform  character  and  according 
to  archaeologists  belong  to  two  periods,  the  beginning 
and  end  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  reign.  Bitumen  was 


44          LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

brought,  according  to  Herodotus,  from  Isa,  the  modern 
Hit  on  the  Euphrates.  Bricks  with  Nebuchadnezzar's 
seal  are  to  be  found  in  many  towns,  Kufa,  Bagdad  and 
other  places,  where  they  are  brought  from  the  ruins  of 
Babylon.  In  1892  the  Turkish  Government  with  the  help 
of  French  engineers  turned  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates 
back  into  their  former  bed  that  they  had  left  for  a  distance 
of  several  hundred  miles.  In  forming  dams  for  this  work 
these  bricks  were  used,  a  fact  that  will  probably  cause 
much  discussion  and  confusion  among  archaeologists  of 
the  future  centuries  who  may  discover  this  work.  I  hap- 
pened to  visit  this  place  and  saw  the  engineering  work, 
in  which  several  thousand  Arabs  were  employed.  Their 
camp  at  night  presented  a  most  unique  sight;  there  were 
no  tents  or  huts  for  so  many,  and  as  the  Arabs  are  very 
sensitive  to  the  cold,  when  the  nights  became  cool  each 
man  dug  himself  a  hollow,  and  buried  himself  for  the 
night  all  but  his  head  in  the  warm  sand.  The  result 
was  that  on  a  moonlight  night  the  camp  looked  like  a 
huge  field  covered  with  melons. 

The  ruins  of  Babylon  impress  the  traveller  by  their 
vast  extent;  not  that  there  are  buildings  or  walls  or  gates, 
but  that  for  hours  one  can  ride  over  mound  after  mound 
that  was  once  the  site  of  a  building.  The  largest  of  these 
mounds  are  four.  The  first,  to  the  southeast  of  Hillah,  is 
called  Birs-Nimrod,  or  the  Tower  of  Nimrod,  identi- 
fied, possibly  erroneously,  with  the  Tower  of  Babel, 
"whose  top  was  to  reach  to  heaven,"  and  where  the 
miracle  of  the  confusion  of  tongues  took  place.  This 
mound  is  195  feet  high,  and  all  that  is  left  of  the  wall  of 
the  tower  are  36  feet  in  height.  According  to  Strabo  the 
height  of  this  tower  was  about  600  feet.  During  the 
reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar  the  tower  was  called  the  Seven 
Spheres  and  was  used  as  an  observatory. 

The  second  large  mound,  south  of  Hillah  on  the  left 


THE   RUINS   OF   BABYLON  45 

bank  of  the  river,  is  called  Babel,  "  the  gate  of  the  gods." 
This  heap  of  ruins  has  served  as  a  brick  quarry  for  the 
last  two  thousand  years.  The  Arab  tribe  of  Babel,  con- 
sidered by  some  to  be  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Baby- 
lonians, has  enjoyed  the  exclusive  right  of  selling  the 
ancient  bricks  excavated  from  this  mound  for  use  as 
building  materials. 

The  third  mound,  Kasir,  or  Palace,  is  also  to  be  found 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Euphrates.  There  are  here  traces 
of  a  huge  palace  of  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  This 
mound  is  no  less  than  4,875  feet  in  circumference. 

Lower  on  the  same  bank  is  the  fourth  mound,  called 
Amran,  where  the  famous  hanging  gardens  were  supposed 
to  have  been.  After  the  time  of  Alexander  of  Macedon 
this  was  used  as  a  burial  place,  the  dead  being  placed  in 
arched  galleries  upon  which  it  is  supposed  the  hanging 
gardens  were  constructed  centuries  before,  in  the  form 
of  terraces.  Here  is  shown  one  of  the  many  tombs  of 
Abraham,  over  which,  at  a  late  date,  a  mausoleum, 
crowned  by  a  cupola,  has  been  erected. 

From  a  distance  all  these  mounds  look  like  low  hills 
rising  out  of  the  flat  desert.  On  examination  they  seem 
to  be  heaps  of  rubbish  with  only  here  and  there  a  bit  of 
wall  or  tower  that  has  been  disclosed  by  the  excavations. 
To  gather  any  just  impression  of  the  extent  of  these 
mounds  one  must  remember  that  Babylon  had  a  length 
of  about  1 6  miles  on  each  of  its  four  sides,  representing 
an  area  of  256  miles.  The  excavations  carried  on  here 
have  not  given  us  great  results  in  stone  monuments,  as 
in  this  alluvial  plain  stones  were  not  to  be  had,  but  were 
brought  from  Persia,  Egypt  and  Arabia.  This  explains 
the  clay  cylinders,  mentioned  above,  which  have  been  the 
principal  means  of  casting  light  upon  the  darkness  of  the 
far  past.  American  and  German  archaeological  expedi- 
tions are  making  excavations  in  these  districts  and  are 


4.6          LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

constantly  making  new  and  valuable  additions  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  history  of  this  country. 

To  dwell  upon  the  wonderful  work  done  by  archaeol- 
ogists of  various  nationalities,  here  and  in  other  parts  of 
Mesopotamia,  would  take  me  far  beyond  my  knowledge 
and  the  modest  range  of  this  book.  If  I  have  mentioned 
Babylon  at  all,  it  is  only  to  speak  of  it  as  we  saw  it,  with 
the  interest  that  such  historical  places  must  have  for  all 
travellers. 

Turning  our  backs  to  the  Euphrates  we  start  on  the 
last  stage  of  our  expedition,  which  is  to  visit  the  Him- 
rin  Mountains  before  the  rainy  season  sets  in.  This  range 
runs  along  the  Persian  frontier  for  almost  three  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  until  the  point  where  the  Tigris  receives 
its  left  tributary,  the  Little  Zab.  The  hills  rise  on  an 
average  only  some  five  hundred  feet,  and  are  inhabited 
by  Kurds,  an  interesting  people  with  whom  we  had  al- 
ready become  acquainted  in  Persia.  The  way  is  long, 
as  we  intend  to  make  a  detour  to  visit  the  ruins  of  Aker 
Rouff,  known  to  the  Arabs  as  "  the  palace  of  Nimrod." 
These  ruins  disappoint  us,  as  they  are  only  groups  of 
huge  formless  pillars  rising  to  a  height  of  some  hundred 
and  forty  feet,  and  built  of  sundried  brick  between  which 
are  occasional  layers  of  reeds.  Approaching  the  Himrin 
range,  we  enter  the  Turkish  provinces  of  Suleimanieh, 
Kerkouk,  and  Tauk,  which  are  inhabited  by  Kurds. 

The  Kurds  occupy  an  enormous  area  of  nearly  one 
thousand  five  hundred  square  miles,  stretching  from 
Ararat  and  Urumiah  on  the  north  down  to  the  middle  of 
the  length  of  the  Tigris  and  the  valley  of  its  tributaries, 
the  Little  and  Great  Zabs.  The  mountain  region  inhab- 
ited by  them  touches  the  Russian  frontier,  then  follows 
the  Perso-Turkish  frontier  south,  and  it  is  a  more  or  less 
inaccessible  mountain  region,  watered  by  streams  that 
secure  good  pasturage  for  the  flocks  of  sheep  kept  by  all 


THE   RUINS   OF   BABYLON  47 

Kurds.  Though  possessing  villages  in  which  they  spend 
the  winter  months,  the  Kurds  are  half  nomads,  following 
their  flocks  as  they  need  change  of  pasturage.  The  coun- 
try occupied  by  them,  and  known  as  Kurdistan,  lies  as 
seen  partly  in  Persia,  partly  in  Turkey.  Being  for  many 
months  of  the  year  quite  inaccessible  it  has  been  possible 
for  those  people  to  preserve  even  in  our  day  their  wild, 
practically  independent  state,  easily  slipping  from  one 
country  to  the  'other  as  their  lawlessness  makes  it  incon- 
venient to  remain  in  the  one.  Kurdistan  is  so  divided  that 
a  greater  number  of  the  Kurds  live  in  Turkey  and  the 
smaller  number  in  Persia.  The  frontier  between  the  two 
countries  was  settled  in  a  treaty  drawn  up  in  1639  by 
Sultan  Murad  IV.  and  Shah  Sefi,  and  later  on  it  was 
more  definitely  traced  by  a  special  commission  including 
Russian  and  English  delegates,  that  was  formed  after  the 
treaty  of  Erzerum  in  1851.  The  result  of  this  last  com- 
mission was  the  establishment  of  a  status  quo  that  has  of 
late  years  given  rise  to  much  controversy. 

In  Turkey  the  Kurds  are  mostly  settled  on  the  plateau 
of  Van  and  the  vilayets  of  Diarbekir  and  Erzerum, 
Mosul,  and  in  parts  of  Bagdad.  In  Persia  they  are  the 
predominating  inhabitants  of  Soujbulak  and  Ushnuk  and 
Kermanshah. 

In  Turkey  they  are  estimated  to  be  about  1,500,000  and 
in  Persia  600,000.  In  Persia  Kurds  are  found  in  the 
provinces  bordering  upon  Transcaspia,  the  provinces  of 
Khorasan,  Budjnurd,  Kachan  and  Derigez,  where  they 
number  as  many  as  300,000  souls.  They  were  brought 
to  these  provinces  from  Kurdistan  in  1600  by  Shah  Abbas 
as  a  counter  barrier  against  the  Turkish  tribes  inhabiting 
the  plain  of  what  is  now  Transcaspia.  Aside  from  these 
places  Kurds  are  to  be  met  with  elsewhere,  but  here  I  will 
speak  only  of  the  tribes  that  are  in  Kurdistan  proper. 

The  Kurds  call  themselves  Kurtmanchi.     The  Turks 


48          LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

and  Persians  call  them  Kurds,  and  the  Arabs  Kart — Ekart 
the  plural.  They  have  been  in  these  provinces  from  time 
immemorial,  and  Xenophon  speaks  of  them  as  Karduks. 
Always  a  lawless  and  warlike  tribe,  these  people  are  a 
constant  menace  to  their  Christian  neighbours,  the  moun- 
tain Nestorians  and  Armenians. 

Kurds  are  divided  into  sedentary,  or  Huran,  as  they 
are  called  in  Persia,  and  Ria  in  Turkey,  and  the  nomadic 
warriors,  Kermanie.  The  nomads  are  broken  up  into 
many  subtribes,  governed  by  begs,  or  sheikhs,  whose 
local  authority  is  far  greater  than  is  that  of  Arab  sheikhs. 
Kurdish  warriors  are  born  horsemen,  far  excelling  the 
Arabs  in  this  respect.  Their  horses  are  undoubtedly  of 
Arab  origin,  particularly  in  those  parts  near  Arab  coun- 
tries, but  horse-breeding  is  not  carried  on  with  them  as 
with  the  Arabs,  nor  do  they  esteem  the  breed  as  much  as 
they  do  the  individual  animal.  These  horses  have  de- 
veloped a  special  type  and  become  a  strong  shaggy  ideal 
mountain  pony,  scrambling  up  steep  hills  with  the  sure- 
footedness  of  the  mountain  goat.  Since  the  time  of  the 
Russo-Turkish  war  the  Kurds  are  well  armed  with  Mar- 
tini-Henry rifles,  from  which  at  full  run  they  seldom  fail 
in  hitting  the  mark.  They  can  execute  with  great  grace 
and  skill  many  feats  of  horsemanship,  and  present  valu- 
able and  rare  material  for  cavalry.  Their  robber  instinct 
is  strongly  developed,  and  a  traveller  in  Kurdistan  may 
consider  himself  fortunate  if  robbed  but  once.  If  no  re- 
sistance is  made,  Kurds  seldom  kill  their  victims,  satisfy- 
ing themselves  with  booty. 

The  various  tribes  are  often  at  war  with  each  other 
on  the  ground  of  blood  feuds.  The  Kurds  are  an  inde- 
pendent, hospitable  people,  loving  their  liberty  and  true  to 
their  given  word,  or  to  "  bread  and  salt."  Their  women 
have  more  freedom  than  those  of  any  other  Moslem 
people  and  go  about  with  uncovered  faces  even  in  the 


THE  RUINS  OF  BABYLON  49 

presence  of  guests.  They,  however,  have  heavier  work 
laid  upon  them  than  have  those  of  most  Mohammedan 
countries.  On  the  whole,  in  spite  of  their  being  a  nation 
of  robbers,  they  have  many  noble  qualities  that  raise 
them  above  the  Arabs. 

The  Kurdish  costume  is  very  picturesque.  It  consists 
of  full,  white,  or  highly-coloured  trousers,  embroidered 
jackets  and  mantles.  They  are  fond  of  bright  colours,  but 
harmonise  them  so  well  that  the  result  is  pleasing  to  the 
eye.  A  Kurdish  warrior  is  a  walking  arsenal ;  daggers, 
revolvers  and  sword  are  in  his  belt;  cartridge  belts  filled 
with  cartridges  are  sometimes  worn  across  both  shoulders, 
a  quick-firing  rifle  slung  over  the  back,  and  when 
mounted  a  spear  is  almost  invariably  carried.  Their 
language  belongs  to  the  Aryan  group,  but  it  has  been  con- 
siderably modified  by  the  introduction  of  words  from 
languages  of  the  countries  where  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances of  their  life  have  thrown  the  Kurds — in  Tur- 
key, Persia  and  Transcaspia.  Among  the  latter  many 
Russian  words  are  found.  The  Arabic  characters  are 
used  in  writing. 

In  spite  of  their  being  scattered  over  three  empires, 
the  Kurds  preserve  a  close  connection  between  the  various 
tribes  and  are  capable  of  uniting  when  occasion  arrives, 
as  was  shown  in  1880  during  my  sojourn  in  Persia  when 
Sheikh  Obeidullah  invaded  that  country. 

The  Russo-Turkish  war  was  just  ended  and  the  Kurds 
found  themselves  well  supplied  with  rifles  that  had  been 
in  part  given  to  them  by  the  Turkish  Government,  whose 
allies  they  were  during  the  war,  and  partly  picked  up  on 
the  battlefield.  At  the  opportune  moment  an  energetic 
and  popular  man  appeared  in  the  person  of  one  of  the 
Kurdish  sheikhs,  Obeidullah  by  name,  who,  uniting  the 
Kurds,  dreamed  of  ^  founding  an  independent  Kurdish 
kingdom — an  enterprise  full  of  risk,  and  which  of  course 


$o          LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

was  not  successful,  though  it  gave  a  great  deal  of  trouble 
to  Turkey,  and  still  more  to  Persia,  causing  the  ruin  of 
whole  villages  and  the  loss  of  thousands  of  lives.  Sheikh 
Obeidullah  was  a  remarkable  personage.  He  lived  in 
Turkey  a  few  miles  from  the  Persian  frontier  in  the 
mountain  fastness  of  a  place  called  Mams-i-deen.  Being 
a  sheikh  and  at  the  same  time  a  sayid  and  a  man  of  more 
than  ordinary  force  of  character,  he  possessed  great  in- 
fluence, not  only  over  his  own  tribes,  but  over  all  the  tribes 
of  Kurdistan.  He  held  a  daily  durbar,  seated  in  the 
summer  in  the  open  window  of  a  room  on  the  ground 
floor  of  his  "  palace,"  and  everyone,  to  the  meanest  of  his 
subjects,  could  have  a  personal  hearing.  As  many  as  six 
hundred  Kurds  would  sometimes  gather  from  all  parts  of 
Kurdistan  for  advice,  some  to  have  tribal  disputes  settled, 
or  other  complications  adjusted.  To  all  of  these  the 
sheikh  listened  patiently  and  attentively,  and  his  wide- 
spread popularity  was  largely  owing  to  the  impartial 
justice,  so  rare  in  the  East,  that  he  meted  out,  together 
with  the  broadest  hospitality  and  generosity.  He  fed  all 
those  who  came  to  him  on  business,  helped  the  poor  and 
gave  a  refuge  to  the  weak  and  oppressed.  If  illness  or 
absence  prevented  his  attending  these  daily  durbars,  the 
duty  was  relegated  to  his  son. 

Carefully  laying  his1  plans,  Sheikh  Obeidullah  per- 
suaded the  most  influential  Kurdish  sheikhs  of  Turkish 
and  Persish  Kurdistan  to  join  him.  Among  them  was 
Sheikh  Hamza  Agha,  well  known  for  his  cruelty,  who 
had  his  old  scores  against  the  government.  To  under- 
stand what  follows  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  that 
part  of  Azerbaijan  adjoining  the  Turkish  frontier  is  the 
plain  of  Urumiah  with  a  Christian  population  of  Nesto- 
rians,  or  Syrians,  supposed  by  many  to  be  the  followers 
of  the  Bishop  Nestorius  condemned  for  heresy  by  the 
Council  of  Ephesus  in  431.  By  a  strange  coincidence, 


THE  RUINS  OF   BABYLON  51 

these  Nestorians  are  scattered  as  are  the  Kurds  on  both 
sides  of  the  frontiers,  so  that  there  are  Nestorian  Turkish 
subjects,  and  Nestorians  under  the  Persian  Government. 
The  Persian  Nestorians,  estimated  at  about  40,000,  live  in 
the  districts  of  Urumiah,  Salmas,  Sulduz,  Baradost,  Ter- 
gawar  and  Mergawar.  In  some  of  these  districts  Ar- 
menians are  scattered,  to  the  number  of  about  fourteen 
thousand  souls.  The  rest  of  the  population  consists  of 
Persian  Shiites  and  Kurdish  Sunnites.  In  September, 
1880,  the  Turkish  Kurds  crossed  the  frontier,  seizing  the 
towns  of  Ushunuk  and  Soujbulak  and  Miandaub,  and  on 
their  devastating  march  laid  waste  scores  of  villages,  kill- 
ing thousands  of  Christians  and  Shiite  Persians.  Sheikh 
Obeidullah  himself  at  the  head  of  eight  thousand  war- 
riors laid  siege  to  Urumiah,  that  was  saved  only  through 
the  personal  influence  of  an  American  missionary  physi- 
cian, Doctor  Cochran.  The  latter  succeeded  in  persuad- 
ing the  sheikh  to  postpone  the  final  assault  upon  the  city, 
thus  giving  time  for  the  Persian  troops  sent  from  Tabriz 
to  arrive,  and  the  Kurds  were  repulsed.  The  sheikh  him- 
self, owing  to  his  friendship  for  Doctor  Cochran,  did  all 
in  his  power  to  protect  the  Christians,  and  mercilessly 
punished  those  of  his  fierce  followers  who  were  caught 
pillaging  or  murdering  them.  But  he  was  powerless  to 
wholly  hold  in  check  his  wild  savages,  who  under  the 
influence  of  fanaticism,  revenge,  and  lust  of  gain  could 
not  be  held  back  from  committing  indescribable  outrages. 
The  invading  horde  gradually  approached  Tabriz,  the 
principal  commercial  centre  of  the  province  as  well  as 
seat  of  the  heir  to  the  throne.  A  panic  seized  Tabriz, 
and  all  those  who  could  do  so  fled.  In  Teheran  the  truth 
was  as  much  as  possible  withheld  from  the  shah  until 
the  Russian  and  English  representatives  laid  before  him 
all  the  danger  of  the  situation.  A  force  of  twenty  thou- 
sand was  at  once  sent  from  Teheran  to  Tabriz  under  the 


$2          LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

command  of  the  ex-minister  of  war,  Sepah  Salar,  who  at 
that  time,  not  being  in  favour  with  the  shah,  was  occupy- 
ing the  modest  post  of  governor  of  Kasveen.  At  the  same 
time  Tamur  Pasha,  the  ruling  khan  of  Mak,  a  province 
bordering  on  Russia,  marched  to  the  rescue  of  Urumiah 
at  the  head  of  five  thousand  men,  while  at  the  shah's  re- 
quest the  Russian  troops  moved  to  the  frontier.  All  this, 
particularly  with  the  menace  'of  the  Russian  troops,  led 
to  the  Kurds  gradually  withdrawing  to  the  Turkish  fron- 
tier. As  the  Kurds  evacuated  the  country,  the  Shiite 
population  began  to  take  vengeance  upon  the  Sunnites 
living  among  them  who  had  taken  the  part  of  the  Kurds, 
their  co-religionists.  Tamur  Pasha's  men  and  finally  the 
regular  Persian  troops  joined  in  this  pillaging  and  massa- 
cre, so  continuing  the  ruin  of  the  country.  The  Persian 
troops  went  into  winter  quarters  along  the  Persian-Turk- 
ish frontier.  Under  pressure  brought  to  bear  by  the 
European  powers  the  Porte  ordered  Sheikh  Obeidullah 
to  Constantinople,  where  he  was  received  with  great 
honour  and  a  palace  placed  at  his  disposal.  During  the 
Ramadan  fast,  the  sheikh,  under  the  pretext  of  praying 
and  fasting,  withdrew  entirely  into  the  privacy  of  his  own 
apartments.  And  at  the  close  of  Ramadan  he  was  found 
to  be  again  in  his  native  landl  This  time  it  was  with 
great  difficulty  that  the  Porte  succeeded  in  taking  him, 
and  he  was  exiled  to  Mecca,  where  he  died  in  1883.  Most 
of  the  other  rebellious  Kurdish  sheikhs,  among  them 
Hamza  Agaby,  were  taken  by  the  Persians  by  guile  and 
put  to  death. 

The  Kurds  living  in  the  Sinjar  Mountains  differ  some- 
what in  their  language  and  Customs  from  those  living  in 
the  north.  In  addition  they  belong  to  a  sect  called  Yezidis* 
The  followers  of  this  sect  can  hardly  be  termed  idolaters, 
Moslems  or  Christians,  though  in  their  belief  are  clear 
traces  of  all  these  religions.  The  Mohammedans  despise 


THE  RUINS  OF  [BABYLON  53 

them  as  the  followers  of  Yezid,  who  killed  Hassan,  and 
the  Christians  not  without  reason  consider  them  to  be  devil 
worshippers,  while  both  attribute  mysterious  ceremonies 
and  orgies  to  them.  The  Yezidis  on  their  side  hate  the 
Mohammedans,  and  the  Turkish  Government  has  never 
been  able  to  get  them  to  serve  the  military  term.  They 
occasionally  appeal  to  Christian  missionaries,  asking  to  be 
admitted  nominally  to  some  Christian  community,  with, 
however,  the  right  of  continuing  their  secret  ceremonies. 
The  Yezidis  are  more  inclined  towards  Christianity  than 
towards  Mohammedanism,  with  which  religion  the  only 
point  of  contact  is  their  esteeming  Mohammed  as  a 
prophet.  The  Yezidis  never  call  themselves  other  than 
by  the  name  of  the  tribe  to  which  they  belong.  Further- 
more, even  the  derivation  of  their  name  is  a  mystery. 
Some  consider  it  to  be  from  Yezid,  the  name  of  the  kalif 
who  caused  the  death  of  Hassan  and  Hussein,  others 
from  the  town  of  Yezd,  and  a  third  theory  is  that  it  is 
taken  from  the  Persian  word  Yazdan — God. 

As  nearly  as  it  has  been  possible  to  learn  their  doctrine 
it  seems  that  the  Yezidis  believe  that  in  the  beginning  Go<f 
created  from  his  own  essence  the  sun,  moon,  stars  and 
angels.  The  devil,  also  created  by  God,  rose  in  rebellion 
and  was  cast  out.  After  suffering  for  seven  thousand 
years,  and  filling  seven  vessels  with  tears  of  remorse,  the 
devil  repented.  These  tears  will  on  the  great  day  of 
judgment  be  used  to  quench  seven  fires.  God  finally  for- 
gave the  devil  and  restored  him  to  his  place  among  the 
angels.  Upon  this  theory  they  base  their  authority  for 
worshipping  God,  the  sun,  moon  and  stars  as  well  as  the 
devil.  It  is  easy  to  trace  the  influence  of  the  old  Persian 
fire-worshippers  in  the  Yezidi  worship  of  the  sun  as  the 
origin  of  all  good  and  of  the  devil  as  the  representative 
of  evil.  The  heathen  dualism  here  seen  in  the  worship 
of  both  good  and  evil  is  founded  on  the  principle  that  as 


54 

the  good  from  its  very  substance  does  not  need  propitia- 
ting they  attempt  only  to  propitiate  the  representative  of 
evil  in  the  form  of  the  devil.  This  is  the  cause  of  their 
being  ready  to  kill  anyone  who  speaks  slightingly  of  the 
devil.  They  themselves  not  only  avoid  pronouncing  the 
word  devil — Sheitan — but  any  word  or  sound  that  may 
resemble  it — they  even  avoid,  if  possible,  the  sound  "  sh." 
When  obliged  to  mention  the  devil  they  try  to  get  around 
using  his  name,  substituting  such  vague  phrases  as  "  he 
of  whom  ye  know,"  "  he  who  is  despised  by  the  ignorant 
and  foolish,"  or  they  call  him  Malek  Taus,  king  of  pea- 
cocks, the  sacred  symbol  of  the  devil  that  is  worshipped 
by  them. 

The  influence  of  Christianity  is  shown  in  their  recog- 
nising Christ,  though  not  as  God's  Son,  but  as  an  angel. 
They  even  have  a  tradition  to  the  effect  that  one  of  their 
sect,  wishing  to  lessen  Christ's  sufferings  when  on  the 
cross,  drew  out  one  of  the  nails.  They  also  have  a  legend 
telling  how  as  soon  as  Christ  was  born  he  could  speak 
and  even  brought  to  life  a  man  one  thousand  years  dead. 

Further,  the  Yezidis  have  a  ceremony  resembling  that 
of  christening.  The  newly  born  child  is  laid  on  a  metallic 
tray  on  which  is  the  image  of  the  devil  in  the  form  of  the 
Malek  Taus  and  thus  is  immersed  in  water.  Another 
'detail  reminding  one  of  Christianity  is  the  partaking  at 
certain  times  of  wine  called  the  "  blood  of  Jesus  Christ." 
On  receiving  the  cup,  the  hand  of  the  bearer  is  kissed. 
They  also  have  something  like  penance.  In  case  of  a 
quarrel,  the  one  in  fault  is  obliged  to  express  his  public 
repentance. 

The  Yezidis  have  a  religious  and  a  civil  head.  The 
religious  head  of  the  Yezidis,  their  Pontifia  maximus, 
called  the  great  sheikh,  lives  not  far  from  Badri  in  the 
village  of  Sheikh  Adi.  This  title  is  hereditary.  To  him 
are  subject  all  the  "  pirs, "  or  Kavali,  clergy  that  he  or- 


THE  RUINS  OF  BABYLON  $5 

dains.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  up  to  1875  the  Turkish 
Government  accepted  without  appeal  the  decisions  of  this 
religious  head  in  all  civil  and  criminal  cases  arising 
among  the  Yezidis,  and  even  his  right  to  give  the  death 
penalty  was  recognised  up  to  the  date  when  the  Yezidis 
in  Turkey  were  included  in  the  laws  governing  other 
Turkish  subjects. 

These  "pirs"  are  illiterate,  which,  however,  is  not  an 
obstacle  to  their  fulfilling  their  duties  in  view  of  the  ab- 
sence of  all  sacred  books.  Their  prayers  are  handed 
down  from  father  to  son  verbally,  and  all  their  prayers 
are  repeated  in  a  whisper.  Prayer  at  sunrise  is  obliga- 
tory. They  have  no  religious  marriage  ceremony.  A 
solemn  worship  of  the  Melek  Taus  is  annually  held  in 
some  cave,  which  ceremonies — according  to  the  Moham- 
medans— are  accompanied  by  various  orgies.  These  ac- 
cusations, however,  must  be  accepted  with  certain  reser- 
vations, as  up  to  now  no  facts  have  been  found  to  prove 
these  statements. 

The  Yezidis  also  sacrifice  each  year  thirty  sheep  to  Jesus 
Christ  and  eighteen  sheep  to  Mohammed.  The  clergy 
are  dressed  entirely  in  black,  and  they  alone  have  the  right 
to  wear  this  colour.  It  is  also  forbidden  to  wear  red  and 
blue,  and  most  Yezidis  dress  in  white.  The  funerals  of 
the  clergy  are  accompanied  by  much  gaiety,  dancing  and 
music. 

The  Sinjar  Kurds  do  not  differ  in  their  ordinary  life 
from  the  other  Kurds  living  in  Persia.  While  the  Kurd- 
ish Yezidis  are  to  be  found  scattered  throughout  the  south- 
west part  of  Kurdistan,  one  finds  in  its  northern  part  as 
well  as  in  various  places  in  Persia  another  sect  known  as 
Ali  Allahis,  a  branch  of  Mohammedans  that  is  equally 
despised  by  Sunnites  and  Shiites. 

Ali  Allahis  are  literally  believers  in  the  divine  origin 
of  Ali,  though  they  call  themselves  Ahli  Allah — God's 


56  LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

people,  or  Ahli  Hakk — the  people  of  the  truth.  While 
fulfilling  the  ceremonies  prescribed  by  the  Mohammedan 
religion  there  is  a  decided  gulf  between  them,  as  they  do 
not  accept  one  of  the  chief  dogmas  of  Mohammedanism, 
the  principle  of  pure  and  impure,  nor  do  they  recognise 
the  fasts,  and  in  many  other  ways  differ  from  the  parent 
religion.  The  foundation  of  their  religion  is  a  panthe- 
ism: the  incarnation  of  God  in  every  creature  animate 
and  inanimate.  This  incarnation  is  particularly  recog- 
nised in  certain  persons,  as  in  the  Old  Testament  patri- 
archs, Moses,  Abraham,  David  and  others,  and  later  in 
Christ.  But  they  regard  AH  above  all  as  the  incarnation 
of  God's  greatest  benevolence.  All  these  chosen  ones  to 
the  number  of  one  thousand  and  one  are  called  "  pirs." 
All  is  by  some  identified  with  Christ,  for  which  reason 
the  Ali  Allahis  call  Christians  their  elder  brothers.  They 
regard  light  as  the  highest  product  of  the  Deity — its 
emblem.  They  believe  in  the  transmigration  of  the  soul 
to  endless  time.  Together  with  the  rite  of  circumcision 
they  have  a  celebration  resembling  that  of  the  Passover, 
when  they  slaughter  a  lamb  as  a  sacrifice  to  Ali  and  drink 
grape  juice. 

Their  sacred  books  are  in  Turkish  writing,  composed 
by  a  certain  Sultan  Nahanie,  who  lived  in  the  sixteenth 
or  seventeenth  century.  Polygamy  is  seldom  met  with 
among  them.  They  have  religious  meetings  that  are 
accompanied  by  music  and  singing  and  also  sacrifices  are 
offered. 

In  regard  to  their  veneration  of  Ali  it  appears  that 
according  to  their  belief  he  above  all  others  is  the  repre- 
sentative of  God  and  therefore  worthy  of  divine  homage, 
while  Mohammed  they  regard  as  Ali's  forerunner.  Ac- 
cording to  some  scholars  the  Ali  Allahis  are  supposed  to 
have  been  formerly  Christians,  but  under  persecution 
nominally  became  Moslems,  that  they  might  conceal  their 


tTHE  RUINS  OF  BABYLON  ^57 

Christianity,  and  that  while  worshipping  Ali  outwardly 
they  really  worshipped  Christ.  As  time  went  on  it  is 
supposed  that  their  former  faith  was  lost  and  finally 
merged  into  the  actual  worship  of  Ali. 

One  should  further  add  that  the  Ali  Allahis  are  sub- 
divided into  various  sects,  according  to  their  preference 
for  one  or  another  of  their  one  thousand  and  one  "  pirs." 
Unfortunately  we  must  confess  to  as  yet  knowing  very 
little  that  is  definite  regarding  this  very  interesting  sect. 


CHAPTER  IV 
EPIDEMICS    IN   BAGDAD 

The  Plague  Epidemics  of  the  Nineteenth  Century — The  Diary  of  a 
French  Consul — Historical  Route  of  Epidemics — A  Dinner  Spoiled 
by  Dread  Tidings — Appearance  of  Cholera  in  Bagdad — Population 
Flees — Life  in  the  Desert — Arabs  Attack  Us — Punishment  of  Pris- 
oners— Return  to  Town — The  Further  Progress  of  the  Epidemic — 
The  Plague  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  in  Constantinople  Described 
by  an  Eyewitness — Symptoms — Measure  of  Prevention — Treatment 
— Depopulation  Caused  by  Plague — Its  Periodical  Appearance — 
Fanaticism  One  of  the  Chief  Causes  Making  it  Impossible  to  Fight 
Epidemics. 

TURKISH  ARABIA  has  always  been  considered  the  home 
of  two  of  the  scourges  of  mankind,  the  cholera  and  the 
plague. 

Of  these  the  latter  was  at  one  time  almost  endemic  and 
seldom  a  year  passed  without  its  breaking  out  somewhere 
among  the  marshes  of  the  lower  Euphrates.  But  at  times 
the  plague  appeared  in  epidemic  forms  of  such  violence 
as  to  cause  devastations  so  overwhelming  as  to  be  difficult 
for  one  who  had  never  witnessed  such  scenes  in  the  Orient 
even  to  imagine.  The  severest  outbreak  of  the  nineteenth 
century  was  that  of  1831,  when  the  city  of  Bagdad  lost 
over  half  of  its  population.  In  1849  and  in  1877  the 
plague  again  appeared,  carrying  off  an  enormous  number 
of  victims.  From  that  date,  possibly  owing  to  different 
conditions  of  life,  some  regard  to  sanitary  measures  and 
comparative  cleanliness,  the  plague  has  not  again  visited 
Bagdad. 

During  such  epidemics  the  only  salvation  was  in  fleeing 

58 


EPIDEMICS    IN    BAGDAD  59 

from  the  contaminated  towns  and  villages  into  the  desert, 
and  it  is  easy  to  understand  the  frame  of  mind  and  the 
sufferings  of  those  who  fled,  as  well  as  of  those  who  were 
forced  to  remain  in  their  homes. 

We  found  in  Bagdad  several  survivors  of  the  great 
plague  of  1849,  whose  experience  had  left  most  vivid  rec- 
ollections of  the  scenes  they  had  passed  through.  One 
of  my  acquaintances  on  whom  we  called  one  hot  day  re- 
ceived us  in  his  deep  dusky  serdab,  where  he  showed  us 
were  buried  with  his  own  hands  his  father,  mother  and 
several  brothers  and  sisters.  The  servants  had  died  and 
there  was  no  one  left  to  help  him,  a  lad,  the  only  survivor, 
to  bury  the  last  of  his  family.  And  I  can  vouch  for  this 
being  not  an  exceptional  case  for  those  dark  days,  and 
under  the  floors  of  many  still  inhabited  serdabs  the 
bones  of  the  victims  of  the  plague  repose. 

On  account  of  the  general  exodus  provisions  were  hard 
to  obtain  in  the  towns  and  people  were  obliged  to  eat 
whatever  they  could  find.  Houses  and  shops  were  for- 
saken, and  it  is  stated  that  blooded  Arab  horses  wandered 
ownerless  through  the  streets,  picking  their  way  through 
the  heaps  of  dead  bodies,  seeking  for  something  to  eat. 

The  dragoman  of  the  French  consulate,  a  worthy  old 
man  who  had  lived  through  the  plague  of  1849  and  had 
also  buried  all  his  family,  told  us  of  a  most  pathetic  diary 
now  in  the  archives  of  the  French  consulate  at  Bagdad 
that  was  kept  by  the  consul  during  that  time.  The  diary 
tells  of  the  beginning  of  the  epidemic;  how  it  spread 
throughout  the  city  and  finally  attacked  the  French  con- 
sulate and  the  monks.  One  after  another  all  the  monks  and 
the  members  of  the  consulate  died,  until  the  consul  and 
one  servant  alone  remained.  The  diary  goes  on  to  tell  how 
the  sole  surviving  servant  went  out  in  the  morning  to  buy 
provisions  and  did  not  return;  evidently  he  was  stricken 
down,  and  the  writer  had  no  one  left  to  serve  him,  and  at 


60          LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

the  same  time  he  complains  of  feeling  badly  himself. 
Later  on,  he  diagnoses  his  own  case  as  the  plague.  The 
final  entry,  in  a  shaking  hand  that  rambles  all  over  the 
page,  says :  "  I  can  write  no  more! " 

The  cholera,  too,  is  a  frequent  visitor  in  Turkish 
Arabia.  Some  authorities  even  lean  to  the  opinion  that 
the  marshes  of  the  lower  Euphrates  are  capable  of  giving 
birth  to  the  microbes  and  that  these  epidemics  are  not 
necessarily  brought  in  every  case  from  India,  as  was  for- 
merly held.  And  it  seems  unreasonable  to  claim  that 
India  is  the  only  cradle  of  this  disease  when  in  other 
places  are  to  be  found  the  same  conditions  of  climate  and 
soil  that  give  rise  to  it  there.  But  according  to  my  own 
observations  and  from  that  of  data  gathered  which  I  will 
not  enlarge  upon,  there  is  a  great  difference  between  the 
cholera  that  had  its  origin  in  Turkish  Arabia  and  that 
brought  from  India,  namely,  the  former  is  easily  local- 
ised and  does  not  spread,  whereas  that  brought  from 
India  travels  by  historical  routes,  so  to  speak,  and  spreads 
with  the  rapidity  of  communication.  Coming  up  by  the 
steamer  from  the  Persian  Gulf  they  follow  the  river  and 
caravan  routes  up  into  Persia  and  Russia  and  eventually 
find  their  way  into  western  Europe.  This  was  the  regular 
route  by  which  all  the  cholera  epidemics  entered  Europe 
up  to  the  time  of  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  when  the 
epidemics  have  travelled  by  sea  and  reached  Europe 
sooner  than  by  the  old  caravan  routes. 

It  was  in  June,  1889,  that  we  received  in  Bagdad  Indian 
papers  telling  of  an  outbreak  of  cholera  there,  but  we 
paid  little  heed,  as  the  cholera  is  always  in  one  part  or  an- 
other of  that  land.  In  a  few  weeks  we  heard  of  its  being 
in  the  ports  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  about  the  middle  of 
August  it  appeared  in  Bassorah,  five  hundred  miles  south 
of  Bagdad. 

It  so  happened  that  the  day  we  received  this  news  we 


EPIDEMICS   IN   BAGDAD  61 

had  a  few  friends  in  to  dinner  and  were  sitting  on  the 
flat  roof  lighted  by  lamps  and  coloured  lanterns,  chatting 
merrily.  In  passing  I  will  remark  that  in  Bagdad  the  In- 
dian custom  has  been  adopted  of  taking  one's  own  butler 
when  invited  out.  Each  guest  has  his  own  man  standing 
behind  his  chair  to  serve  him,  or  with  fan  in  hand  to  keep 
off  the  myriads  of  winged  creatures  that,  attracted  by  the 
lights,  swarm  about.  There  are  few  sights  more  pictur- 
esque than  these  prettily  decorated  European  dinner  tables 
surrounded  by  white  women  in  evening  dress  and  the 
dusky  Goanese,  in  their  immaculate  white  English  mess 
jackets,  standing  behind  them  with  palm  leaf  or  peacock 
feather  fans  in  their  hands;  and  back  out  of  the  circle  of 
lights  the  tall  feathery  palm  trees  rising  against  the 
brightly  starred  sky. 

During  the  dinner  one  of  those  present  received  a  tele- 
gram informing  him  of  the  appearance  of  cholera  in 
Bassorah,  and  he,  fortunately  or  unfortunately,  showed  it 
to  us.  Instantly  a  change  came  over  the  gay  company  and 
appetites  most  strangely  vanished.  Though  we  repeatedly 
agreed  to  taboo  the  subject  it  was  impossible  to  keep  from 
it,  and  one  or  another  would  constantly  refer  to  what  was 
uppermost  in  all  our  minds.  It  was  evident  that  the 
shadow  of  the  dread  epidemic  came  over  all  those 
present,  some  of  whom  we  were  not  destined  to  meet 
again. 

The  climax  was  reached  when  at  the  end  ice  cream  was 
handed  round.  One  after  another  declined,  and  amidst 
the  joking  that  met  each  refusal  I  whispered  to  our  butler 
to  see  that  the  ice  was  thrown  away,  that  none  of  the  ser- 
vants should  be  tempted  by  it.  By  the  time  coffee  and 
liquors  were  reached  a  little  of  the  gloom  had  been  dis- 
persed, and  when  the  guests  rose  to  leave  we  had  almost 
forgotten  what  had  up  to  then  been  the  chief  topic  of  con- 
versation. 


62          LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM  EAST 

A  few  minutes  after  our  friends  had  left  the  roof  our 
attention  was  attracted  by  a  noise  in  the  courtyard  below, 
and  on  looking  down  we  could  see  by  the  light  of  their 
lanterns  our  guests  grouped  at  a  respectable  distance 
about  a  prostrate  and  writhing  form.  It  seems  that  our 
unlucky  Ahmed  had  not  been  able  to  endure  the  thought 
of  so  much  good  ice  cream  thrown  away,  and  rather  than 
have  done  it  had  seated  himself  and  conscientiously  made 
way  with  what  had  been  prepared  for  half  a  dozen  per- 
sons. The  results  were  most  natural,  as  the  physician  we 
called  in  confirmed,  and  the  alarming  symptoms  had 
nothing  in  common  with  the  cholera.  The  rumour,  how- 
ever, was  spread  that  the  first  case  of  the  dread  disease 
had  taken  place  in  our  house,  and  the  next  day  our  street 
was  avoided. 

Three  or  four  more  days  passed,  and  in  the  poorer 
quarters  of  the  town  one  or  more  cases  were  reported,  and 
a  few  days  later  the  epidemic  had  seized  the  whole  of 
Bagdad.  At  this  time  the  heat  was  at  its  height,  the  ther- 
mometer rising  to  100  degrees  F.  in  the  shade.  Epi- 
demics of  this  kind  are  always  fearful  in  Oriental  coun- 
tries, but  more  so  in  Turkish  Arabia  than  in  some  places, 
owing  to  its  intensitiveness  and  to  the  way  of  living,  as 
well  as  to  the  form  in  which  the  oooulation  expresses 
its  grief. 

During  the  hot  months  rich  and  poor  sleep  on  the  flat 
roofs,  and  consequently  one  is  very  often  an  involuntary 
witness  of  the  sufferings  of  one's  neighbours.  And  then 
as  soon  as  a  native  is  dead  all  the  women  folks  set  up  a 
long  wail,  rising  in  the  night  air  higher  and  higher  while 
with  the  hand  they  beat  on  their  mouths;  the  effect  is 
weird  in  the  extreme,  and  as  the  epidemic  increased  we 
would  hear  sometimes  first  from  one  roof  and  then  from 
another  the  dismal  cry  go  up,  until  our  nerves  were  in  a 
state  to  make  us  easy  prey  to  the  disease.  It  proved  to  be 


EPIDEMICS    IN   BAGDAD  63 

more  than  the  inhabitants  of  the  unfortunate  city  could 
stand,  and  a  wholesale  exodus  began  to  take  place. 

At  this  stage  of  the  epidemic  there  were  very  few  re- 
coveries, and  cases  were  reported  where  death  ensued  in 
three  to  four  hours  after  the  seizure.  Often  in  the  after- 
noon we  would  hear  of  a  funeral  of  someone  we  had  seen 
the  same  morning  in  perfect  health.  It  is  not  to  be  won- 
dered that  a  panic  fell  upon  the  city  and  everyone  was  in- 
spired with  the  thought  to  flee.  Where  to  was  not  of 
much  consequence,  nor  indeed  was  there  much  choice; 
to  be  sure  the  desert  was  open  to  all,  but  only  along  the 
river  banks  could  water  be  had. 

Each  party  tried  to  isolate  itself  by  camping  as  far  as 
possible  from  the  others,  and  day  by  day  a  steady  stream 
poured  out  of  the  doomed  city  in  spite  of  the  great  heat, 
that  made  living  anywhere  but  in  the  serdabs  a  misery; 
in  spite  of  difficulties  in  procuring  medical  help  or  pro- 
visions of  any  kind,  the  only  thought  was  to  escape  from 
the  empty  streets,  where  hour  after  hour  the  only  living 
beings  seen  would  be  frequent  groups  of  men  hurrying 
along  carrying  bodies,  often  in  the  sheet  in  which  the 
person  had  died,  seldom  in  coffins;  and  to  escape  from 
the  nights  on  the  roof  in  that  stricken  city  where  sleep  was 
made  hideous  by  the  frequent  wails  announcing  a  fresh 
victim. 

In  three  weeks'  time  the  epidemic  had  reached  its 
height,  the  grave  diggers  could  not  keep  up  with  their 
work  and  piles  of  dead  accumulated  in  the  cemeteries. 
The  greater  part  of  the  bazaars  were  closed,  and  at  night 
the  river  was  dotted  with  the  lights  of  the  many  guffas 
floating  down  the  river  with  fleeing  families  who  took 
advantage  of  the  coolness  of  the  night.  The  administra- 
tion was  hampered  in  all  its  sanitary  and  quarantine  ef- 
forts by  the  Moslem  belief  that  all  such  epidemics  are 
sent  as  a  punishment  by  God,  to  fight  against  which  is 


64          LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

sinful.  The  natives  continued  to  drink  unboiled  water 
from  the  river  as  well  as  from  basins  and  cisterns,  and  to 
eat  fruit  and  vegetables  of  doubtful  quality.  They  con- 
tinued also  to  bring  bodies  from  outside  of  the  town  for 
burial  within  the  walls,  and  when  the  police  took  severe 
measures  against  this  they  tried  in  every  way  to  smuggle 
their  dead  in.  One  day  the  police  found  in  a  cart  full 
of  vegetables  for  the  market  the  unwashed  body  of  a  chol- 
era victim!  This  event  filled  the  cup  of  our  long-suffer- 
ing, and  we  decided  to  leave  the  city.  But  where  to? 
Our  only  choice  was  somewhere  along  the  banks  of  the 
Tigris,  and  we  set  out  to  select  an  isolated  spot.  The 
camp  and  our  horses  were  taken  out  by  land,  and  my  wife 
and  I  decided  to  go  by  river  to  avoid  passing  the  grave- 
yards, where,  in  spite  of  constant  work  day  and  night, 
bodies  were  heaped  up  awaiting  burial. 

From  our  house  to  the  water's  edge  where  we  took  the 
guffa  was  but  a  few  minutes'  walk,  and  yet  in  this  short 
distance  we  saw  several  bodies  being  hurried  through  the 
streets  to  be  laid  in  the  grave  without  a  prayer  or  service 
of  whatever  religion  they  might  belong  to.  Not  the  least 
sad  of  those  sad  times  were  these  hasty  funerals  and  the 
nameless  graves  that  were  the  result. 

And  so  we  find  ourselves  seated  on  camp-chairs  that 
were  placed  in  the  guffa  smoothly  turning  round  and 
round  down  the  Tigris.  On  both  sides  of  us  the  banks 
are  dotted  with  the  campfires  of  those,  who  like  us,  have 
escaped  from  the  terrors  behind.  As  we  row  on  the 
lights  become  fewer,  and  after  passing  dark  banks  for 
some  time  the  lights  of  our  camp  come  in  sight.  We  set- 
tle ourselves  in  our  double  Indian  tent:  the  servants  in 
tents  made  by  the  Jews  in  Bagdad,  Mendoza  and  Fer- 
nando as  Christians  having  one  apart  from  the  Moham- 
medan servants.  We  also  have  with  us,  aside  from  our 
town  servants,  some  Arabs  from  the  immediately  sur- 


EPIDEMICS   IN   BAGDAD  65 

rounding  tribe  to  act  as  watchmen  and  to  guard  us  against 
their  own  and  other  tribesmen. 

The  next  day  we  establish  regular  communication  with 
the  city  and  something  like  a  quarantine.  We  arrange  a 
regular  course  of  diet  for  the  whole  camp,  over  the  strict 
observance  of  which  I  myself  keep  watch.  We  lay  in  a 
provision  of  rice,  buy  sheep  and  fowls  alive,  and  com- 
mence to  drag  out  our  miserable  existence  under  the  burn- 
ing sun  far  from  any  shade  to  protect  our  tents.  It  was 
literally  dragging  out  one's  existence  and  not  living.  The 
thermometer  in  our  tent  rose  to  100°  F.,  and  then,  our  pet 
monkey  breaking  it,  we  never  knew  how  much  higher  it 
might  have  gone.  One  became  dizzy  and  faint  from  the 
heat,  and  green  circles  seemed  to  swim  before  our  eyes — 
a  bad  sign!  We  kept  cold  compresses  on  our  heads  and 
counted  the  hours  till  the  setting  sun  would  free  us  from 
the  worst  heat.  In  the  evenings  we  found  relief  sitting 
by  the  water's  edge.  Just  as  twilight  is  setting  in  all  the 
life  of  the  desert  seems  to  come  here  for  the  evening 
drink.  Jackals  would  play  fearlessly  like  dogs  twenty 
feet  from  us  if  we  were  quiet,  not  seeming  to  mind  the 
presence  of  human  beings;  or  we  would  see  duradji,  sin- 
gle file,  stepping  carefully  along  the  bank  with  out- 
stretched necks.  As  soon  as  darkness  sets  in  the  jackals 
begin  their  concert.  They  were  our  greatest  pests,  as  they 
came  insolently  into  the  tents  at  night  and  carried  off 
everything  they  could  eat,  from  chickens  to  boots  and 
shoes. 

As  it  grew  darker  an  occasional  guffa  rising  out  of  the 
gloom  would  whirl  silently  past.  Sometimes  one  would 
half  stop  and  a  voice  in  the  darkness  would  be  heard  ask- 
ing whose  camp  this  was,  and  if  we  knew  anything  of 
their  relatives  or  friends,  from  whom  they  had  become 
separated.  Sometimes  we  could  give  them  no  informa- 
tion, but  occasionally  we  had  bad  tidings  of  those  whom 


66  LIFE   IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

we  knew  had  fallen.  One  night  we  were  hailed  by  a 
guffa  that  proved  to  be  full  of  Chaldean  acquaintances 
of  ours.  They  told  us  that  they  were  changing  their 
camp  for  the  third  time,  as  the  cholera  kept  following 
them,  and  in  the  last  place  they  had  left  a  child  not  yet 
quite  dead  but  for  whom  they  knew  there  was  no  hope. 
It  cannot  be  said  that  these  evening  visitors  added  to  the 
cheerfulness  of  our  life. 

And  so  the  days  passed  slowly  and  painfully.  One 
night  we  were  aroused  by  cries  that  brought  the  whole 
camp  to  its  feet.  We  could  hear  the  sound  of  running 
and  an  occasional  cry  of  "Here  he  is!"  "Catch  him!" 
etc.  It  proved  to  be  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  Arabs  to 
take  off  our  thoroughbred  Arab  horses. 

Horse-stealing  is  generally  done  in  the  following  man- 
ner: A  dark  night  is  chosen  by  a  party  consisting  of  sev- 
eral individuals,  stark  naked  and  oiled  with  cocoanut  or 
some  other  vegetable  oil  in  order  to  make  themselves 
slippery  and  hard  to  catch.  They  divide  in  two  parties, 
one  approaching  the  camp  farthest  from  the  place 
where  the  horses  are  tethered  and  there  begin  to  howl  as 
jackals;  the  others  lie  in  wait  as  near  to  the  horses  as  pos- 
sible. If  it  is  found  that  the  watchmen  are  at  their  post 
the  first  party  betrays  itself,  and  when  the  alarm  is  given 
and  all  rush  to  that  point,  their  accomplices  creep  up  to 
the  horses  and  in  the  confusion  often  succeed  in  getting 
them  off.  This  time  the  attempt  proved  abortive,  as  our 
watchmen  were  experienced  and  not  to  be  easily  caught. 

As  this  was  repeated  another  night  I  had  the  unfortu- 
nate idea  of  arming  our  watchmen  with  rifles,  which  a 
few  nights  later  I  had  cause  to  regret.  The  alarm  was 
again  raised,  but  the  shouting  and  running  soon  changed 
to  firing  on  both  sides.  On  account  of  the  intense  heat 
we  were  sleeping  just  outside  of  the  tent  and  found  our- 
selves at  one  time  between  the  belligerent  parties  in  the 


EPIDEMICS    IN    BAGDAD  67 

direct  line  of  fire  with  the  balls  whistling  over  our  heads. 
After  perhaps  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  which  seemed  to  us 
in  our  helpless  position  to  be  hours,  the  firing  slackened 
and  finally  ceased.  On  calling  the  roll  we  found  to  our 
surprise  that  in  spite  of  so  much  noise  no  one  was  hurt, 
and  though  we  had  kept  off  the  attack  not  so  much  as  a 
prisoner  had  been  taken.  The  next  morning  I  decided 
to  take  away  the  rifles  and  send  for  our  dogs.  Left  in 
Bagdad  were  my  two  pointers,  about  which  as  sporting 
dogs  the  less  said  the  better,  but  as  watch  dogs  they  were 
matchless.  A  few  nights  after  the  dogs  arrived  they 
gave  the  alarm  and  the  usual  shouting  and  confusion  en- 
sued. This  time,  thanks  to  the  two  dogs,  a  prisoner  was 
taken.  He  was  brought  in  triumph  to  the  camp  to  be 
judged  by  the  watchmen  and  punished  according  to  the 
desert  laws.  I,  however,  stipulated  that  they  should 
neither  beat  nor  torture  him,  to  which  they  very  reluct- 
antly consented. 

The  camp  quieted  down  and  for  a  long  time  we  could 
hear  the  quiet  and  apparently  friendly  conversation  be- 
tween our  watchmen  and  their  prisoner.  They  all 
seemed  to  take  the  night's  work  as  a  matter  of  course. 
.Kismet,  that  this  time  had  spelled  failure  for  the  horse 
thieves,  might  under  other  circumstances  be  their  own 
lot,  and  they  were  not  therefore  inclined  to  look  upon  the 
prisoner  other  than  as  one  whose  luck  had  forsaken  him; 
the  latter  on  his  part  accepted  his  fate  as  kismet  and  asked 
for  no  mercy. 

The  next  morning  I  saw  our  prisoner.  He  was  quite 
naked,  squatting  on  his  knees  with  his  wrists  tied  to  his 
ankles.  He  was  a  young  man  with  long  braided  locks 
falling  on  his  shoulders,  and  his  face  wore  a  calm  expres- 
sion as  if  he  were  perfectly  reconciled  to  his  fate.  As  I 
approached  he  bowed  his  head,  avoiding  my  eye,  and  I 
passed  by  in  silence.  Being  sure  that  no  real  harm  would 


68          LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM  EAST 

come  to  him,  I  considered  it  wisest  to  leave  him  to  his 
tribesmen,  supposing  that  they  would  soon  set  him  free. 
What  then  was  my  surprise  on  leaving  the  tent  a  little  be- 
fore sunset  to  find  the  poor  fellow  quietly  sitting  there  in 
the  same  forced  position.  It  seems  he  had  been  kept  all 
day  thus  with  his  bare  head  exposed  to  the  sun,  an  ordeal 
that  would  have  given  anybody  but  an  Arab  a  sunstroke. 
I  ordered  him  to  be  set  free  at  once,  the  Arabs  protesting 
and  saying  that  he  might  consider  himself  lucky  if  they 
let  him  off  by  night-time.  However,  they  untied  him 
and  during  the  process  lectured  him  as  to  the  uselessness 
of  attempting  another  attack  on  us  and  advised  him  to 
warn  his  fellows  that  a  like  reception  awaited  them  if 
they  came.  The  prisoner  continued  to  keep  silent  and 
when  they  freed  him  rose  stiffly  and  staggered  off,  and 
for  a  long  time  I  watched  his  diminishing  silhouette 
lighted  by  the  slanting  rays  of  the  setting  sun.  Whether 
it  was  that  the  hours  spent  in  our  camp  were  so  vividly 
described  as  to  kill  any  desire  on  his  own  part  or  that  of 
his  companions  to  risk  another  raid,  the  fact  remains  that 
we  were  no  more  molested  during  our  sojourn  in  the 
desert. 

In  September  it  became  evident  that  the  worst  of  the 
epidemic  was  over;  the  number  of  cases  reported  each 
day  steadily  diminished,  while  the  number  of  recoveries 
increased,  and  so,  taking  heart,  the  inhabitants  of  Bagdad 
began  to  think  of  returning  to  town. 

That  we  and  all  those  with  us  safely  survived  the  epi- 
demic was  possibly  owing  to  the  strict  control  I  kept  of 
the  diet  and  drinking  of  the  whole  camp.  But  on  our 
return  to  the  city  we  found  that  many  of  our  acquaint- 
ances had  fallen  victims,  and  for  weeks  after  we  reached 
home  we  kept  discovering  blanks  in  the  list. 

One  of  the  saddest  cases  was  that  of  a  family  we  knew 
well :  the  father,  both  children  and  several  servants  were 


EPIDEMICS    IN   BAGDAD  69 

carried  off  within  a  few  hours,  and  the  wife  and  mother 
returned  alone  to  England,  her  native  land,  leaving  all 
she  held  dear  buried  in  unknown  graves. 

But  though  weakening  in  Bagdad,  the  epidemic  con- 
tinued with  devastating  march  up  the  Tigris  to  Mosul 
and  northeast  by  the  pilgrim  routes  into  Persia  and  the 
Caucasus.  It  was  just  the  period  for  the  pilgrims7  return 
from  their  sacred  places  in  Turkish  Arabia,  Nedjef  and 
Kerbella,  and  in  the  great  caravans  the  cholera  made 
enormous  havoc.  These  caravans  thus  formed,  so  to 
speak,  artificial  means  of  spreading  the  disease  as  fast  as 
they  could  travel  throughout  countries  through  which 
they  passed. 

In  conclusion,  it  will  perhaps  be  interesting  to  mentior 
the  plague  of  the  eighteenth  century  in  Constantinople, 
when  it  was  a  yearly  guest  in  that  capital,  continuing  from 
seven  to  eight  months  annually  and  dying  out  only  as  a 
cold  season  set  in.  We  find  very  interesting  material  on 
this  subject  in  a  work  by  D'Ohsson,  who  was  Swedish 
charge  d'affaires  in  the  last  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
This  book,  which  in  every  respect  is  a  valuable  one,  is  un- 
fortunately at  the  present  time  out  of  print  and  very  dif- 
ficult to  obtain. 

This  is  what  the  author,  who  was  an  eyewitness,  says 
of  these  epidemics: 

"  It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  the  origin  of  the  plague  or 
to  find  a  remedy  for  this  terrible  disease.  During  the 
past  centuries  learned  men  have  left  us  many  treatises  on 
this  subject,  but  all  their  experiments  and  researches  have 
only  led  to  theories  and  contradictory  conclusions.  These 
epidemics,  which  in  former  times  devastated  all  Europe, 
have,  in  our  day,  apparently,  become  localised  in  the 
East.  Constantinople  and  Cairo  are  now  their  favourite 
haunts,  and  the  inhabitants  of  these  cities  suffer  the  most 
severe  epidemics.  In  the  plan  of  this  book  does  not  enter 


70          LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

an  examination  of  the  influence  that  the  diet  and  filth  of 
this  city  have  upon  the  spreading  of  the  scourge;  nor  the 
effect  of  the  damp  atmosphere  of  Egypt,  which  is  aggra- 
vated by  the  miasma  emanating  from  the  decaying  vege- 
tation in  the  stagnant  marshes  that  are  formed  by  the 
yearly  overflow  of  the  Nile.  All  our  historical  knowl- 
edge bears  witness  to  the  fact  that  the  Greeks  knew  of  the 
origin  of  this  disease  no  more  than  we.  They  called  it 
the  sacred  disease,  owing  to  the  powerlessness  of  human 
help  or  knowledge,  and  they  appealed  to  their  gods,  offer- 
ing them  sacrifices. 

"  The  Mohammedans,  also  crushed  by  their  impotence 
against  the  scourge  and  also  knowing  no  more  of  its  ori- 
gin or  treatment,  depended  upon  supernatural  help, 
bringing  sacrifices,  giving  alms  and  offering  public 
prayers.  Convinced  that  these  epidemics  were  Heaven- 
sent on  account  of  their  sins,  they  considered  all  precau- 
tionary measures,  such  as  were  suggested  by  the  example 
and  teaching  of  their  European  neighbours,  to  be  sinful. 

"The  results  of  the  study  of  this  scourge  during  so 
many  centuries  is  confined  to  only  learning  its  symptoms 
and  fatal  results.  Vomiting,  headache,  inflamed  eyes, 
hemorrhage,  fainting,  hoarseness,  severe  fever,  buboes, 
carbuncles,  these  are  the  characteristic  symptoms  of  this 
disease.  There  are,  however,  many  cases  that,  owing  to 
individual  idiosyncrasies  or  the  degree  of  acuteness  of  the 
seizure,  present  so  many  contradictory  symptoms  as  to 
puzzle  and  even  lead  astray  the  most  experienced  physi- 
cians. 

"  Garlic,  vinegar,  opium,  laudanum,  perfumery,  and, 
according  to  some  authorities,  wine  and  liquors,  are  the 
prophylactic  remedies  to  be  employed.  Gruel,  tonics, 
treatment  for  softening  the  chest,  these  are  the  commonly 
resorted  to  medical  treatment.  Bouillons  are  harmful 
and  blood-letting  almost  always  fatal.  The  strength  of 


EPIDEMICS    IN   BAGDAD  71 

the  illness  is  such  and  the  poison  thereof  so  severe  that 
persons  seized  are  generally  carried  off  on  the  third  to 
fourth  day,  and  of  one  hundred  cases  seldom  as  many  as 
eight  or  ten  survive. 

"  Buboes,  the  most  characteristic  symptom  of  the 
plague,  generally  appear  as  swelling  in  the  arm-pits,  in 
the  groins  or  in  the  neck.  Sometimes  they  are  found  on 
the  face  or  even  in  the  eyes.  Some  unhappy  ones  have 
as  many  as  three,  four  or  five,  or  even  seven  at  a  time. 
Those  who,  thanks  to  a  strong  constitution,  recover,  have 
the  appearance  of  horrid  skeletons  and  must  follow  a  rig- 
orous regime  to  avoid  a  relapse  of  the  illness,  which  is  al- 
ways fatal.  The  fortunate  ones  who  pull  through  are 
not,  however,  guaranteed  against  a  second  attack,  and 
there  have  been  known  those  who  have  had  the  plague 
several  times  and  have  at  last  succumbed  to  it.  Such  is 
generally!  the  fate  of  the  leeches,  Mohammedans  and 
Jews,  who  devote  themselves  to  the  plague-stricken. 

"  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  all  thqse  who  have  had  the 
disease  are  warned  of  a  new  outbreak  or  epidemic  in  the 
towns  where  they  live  by  pain  in  the  scars  of  the  carbun- 
cles and  buboes.  Children  and  young  people  are  more 
susceptible  to  the  plague  than  those  of  maturer  age,  and 
as  observation  has  proved,  especially  in  the  capital,  for- 
eigners, travellers  and  all  recent  arrivals  are  more  likely 
to  be  victims  than  are  the  natives.  Another  not  less  in- 
teresting observation  shows  what  might  be  termed  the 
caprices  of  infection.  Having  been  exposed  a  hundred 
times  with  impunity,  one  may  contract  the  disease  when 
apparently  least  exposed.  Hundreds  of  people  who  visit 
plague-infected  houses,  kiss  their  friends  who  are  in  death 
agony,  inherit  their  property,  wear  their  clothes,  even 
furs,  without  any  harm;  while  in  other  cases  or  in  later 
years  a  chance  letter  from  distant  parts  may  bring  the 
plague  miasma  that  proves  fatal. 


72  LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

"In  Cairo,  and  particularly  in  Constantinople,  this 
awful  disease  reigns  all  summer,  beginning  generally 
towards  the  latter  part  of  April  and  ending  only  in  No- 
vember. The  temperature  serves  as  a  thermometer, 
showing  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  epidemic,  which,  gaining, 
reaches  its  highest  culminating  point  during  the  greatest 
heat,  and  declines  as  cold  weather  approaches,  especially 
if  the  winter  is  not  an  extreme  one  in  its  cold  nor  too  soft, 
in  either  of  which  cases,  as  close  observation  has  proved, 
the  epidemic  again  takes  on  new  force. 

"The  secondary  towns,  as  Adrianople,  Brusa,  Smyrna, 
Salonica,  Alexandria,  Aleppo,  Damascus,  Bagdad,  Bus- 
reh  and  others,  are  visited  by  the  plague  at  greater  inter- 
vals, but  on  the  other  hand  the  epidemics  are  of  greater 
intensity  in  these  cities  and  in  the  adjoining  villages  and 
hamlets.  The  reasons  for  periodical  outbursts  of  the 
plague  are  unknown. 

"  It  is  impossible  to  picture  or  describe  a  town  invaded 
by  this  contagion.  There  are  years  when  in  six  months 
over  sixty  thousand  are  carried  off  in  Constantinople 
alone.  Whole  families  are  wiped  out  in  from  ten  to  fif- 
teen days.  Devastation  goes  from  house  to  house;  the 
weeping  and  mourning  of  one  household,  the  constant 
fear  of  others,  the  funeral  processions  filling  the  streets, 
pale  bluish  faces  met  with  at  every  step,  the  dying  whom 
one  cannot  always  avoid,  in  narrow,  dark  and  crowded 
streets,  stagnation  in  commerce  and  all  business,  the  im- 
perative heritage  processes  that  are  daily  made'  more 
complicated  by  ever-occurring  additional  deaths, — all 
these  poison  the  existence  of  even  those  who  cling  the 
closest  to  the  dogma  of  fatality. 

"  The  more  intelligent  of  the  inhabitants  feel  the  need 
of  prophylactic  measures,  but  they  are  powerless  to  fight 
against  the  superstition  of  the  majority  and  they  have  not 
the  courage  to  carry  out  such  precautions.  If  some  avoid 


EPIDEMICS   IN   BAGDAD  73 

contact  with  the  actual  patients  they  yet  freely  see  the 
other  members  of  the  household,  those  who  care  for  the 
patient,  and  even  sleep  in  the  same  room  with  him.  Thos< 
who  flee  from  an  infected  house  to  that  of  a  friend  or  rela- 
tive take  with  them  their  clothing  and  bedding  in  a  blind, 
fatal  carelessness.  If  one  dies  or  recovers  of  the  plague 
there  is  no  thought  of  destroying  the  bedding  or  linen  nor 
of  cleaning  the  house.  The  greatest  danger  is  that  when 
a  person  is  seized  with  the  disease,  the  belief  in  fatalism 
keeps  the  relatives  close  by  the  bedside  of  the  sufferer,  by 
their  example  teaching  him  to  bow  to  the  rod." 

This  is  a  picture  that,  alas,  has  changed  little  during 
the  epidemics  of  our  day,  and  unfortunately  not  in  Tur- 
key alone. 


CHAPTER  V 

SUNNITES  AND  SHIITES,  AND  THE  RELICS  OF  THE 

PROPHET 

Division  of  Moslem  World  into  Two  Factions — The  Koran  the  Foun- 
dation of  Islamism — Views  Regarding  Paradise  and  Hell — Chief 
Factors  towards  Obtaining  Paradise:  Prayers,  Fasts,  Pilgrimages  to 
Holy  Places,  Alms,  Sacred  Wars — Teachings  Regarding  Pure  and 
Impure — Ablutions — Daily  and  Special  Prayers — Fasts — What  are 
Sunnites  and  Shiites? — Original  Cause  of  the  Division — Twelve 
Shiite  Imams — Imam  Mehdi — Mudjtaheids — Their  Importance 
among  the  Shiites — Shiite  Hatred  of  Abu-Bekr,  Omar  and  Osman — 
Result  of  Split  in  the  Mohammedan  Religion — Religious  Wars — 
Letter  of  Selim  I.  to  Shah  Ismael — The  Passing  of  the  Moslem 
Holy  Places  from  Shiites  to  Sunnites — The  Persian  Sacred  Banner 
— The  Sacred  Banner  of  the  Kor — The  Origin  of  the  Prophet's 
Sacred  Banner — Its  Passing  into  the  Possession  of  the  Turkish  Sul- 
tan— The  Significance  of  Sacred  Banners — Sacred  Garments  and 
Their  Origin — Ceremony  of  15  Ramadan — Two  Holy  Teeth — Holy 
Beard — Mysterious  Appearance  in  Various  Parts  of  the  Mohamme- 
dan World  of  Hair — Significance  of  These  Relics — Inferior  Re).ics. 

THE  one  hundred  and  sixty  million  followers  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan religion  are  divided  into  two  principal  sects, 
those  of  the  Sunnites  and  Shiites,  of  which  the  former  are 
the  dominant  element  in  Turkey,  Egypt,  and  Africa,  and 
the  latter,  in  Persia,  the  Caucasus,  Bokhara  and  India. 

While  based  on  the  same  fundamental  doctrines,  these 
two  factions  differ  in  details  that  have  given  rise  to  un- 
reconcilable  disagreements  causing  enmity,  not  only  reli- 
gious, but  even  political. 

The  basis  of  the  Mohammedan  religion — "  Islam  " — 

74 


SUNNITES   AND   SHIITES  75 

is  the  Koran,  which  is  composed  of  moral,  religious  and 
political  laws,  given  in  blank  verse  and  often  expressed 
in  mystic  form.  Here  one  finds  a  mixture  of  Christian 
and  Hebraic  influence.  The  Biblical  patriarchs  and 
prophets  are  accepted,  among  them  being  Christ.  "  We 
believe,"  says  Mohammed  in  one  of  the  chapters  of  the 
Koran,  "  in  God,  and  in  him  whom  He  sent  to  us,  in  him 
whom  He  revealed  to  Abraham,  Ishmael  and  Jacob  and 
the  twelve  tribes.  We  believe  in  the  holy  books  that 
Moses,  Jesus  and  the  prophets  received  from  Heaven. 
We  make  no  distinction  between  them.  We  are  the 
mouthpiece  of  God." 

The  Koran  is  remarkable  for  its  disconnected,  frag- 
mentary form  and  absence  of  any  system  in  its  composi- 
tion. It  is  full  of  obscure  passages  giving  rise  to  much 
discussion  among  modern  commentators.  Of  himself 
Mohammed  speaks  only  as  of  an  intermediate  between 
God  and  man,  which  explains  the  fact  that  when  Mos- 
lems quote  the  Koran,  they  do  not  say  merely  "  Moham- 
med says,"  but  "  God  sa^s."  The  Koran  accepts  the  one 
God  without  the  Trinity.  Angels  as  God's  messengers 
are:  Gabriel,  the  inspirer  of  Mohammed,  and  the  in- 
scriber  of  the  divine  commands;  Michael,  the  warrior 
who  guides  the  wars  for  the  faith ;  Azrael,  the  angel  of 
death ;  and  Israfil,  who  will  sound  the  trumpet  to  call  forth 
the  dead  at  the  day  of  judgment.  Aside  from  the  above 
mentioned,  the  Moslems  believe  that  two  guardian  angels 
are  given  to  each  person — one  to  watch  over  his  right 
hand  and  to  inscribe  his  good  deeds,  and  the  one  on  the 
left  who  notes  the  evil.  Angels  are  mortal.  They  must 
have  some  time  died,  in  order  to  rise  on  the  day  of  the  last 
judgment.  This  day  will  be  foreshadowed  by  many 
signs  and  wonders  in  heaven  and  on  earth.  The  last 
warning  will  be  three  blasts  of  the  trumpet  by  the  angel 
Israfil.  After  the  third  call  the  entire  space  between 


76  LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

heaven  and  earth  will  be  filled  with  the  sduls  of  the  dead, 
that,  being  united  with  their  bodies,  will  appear  at  the 
judgment  in  a  state  of  nakedness.  The  angel  Gabriel 
holds  the  scales  and  weighs  the  deeds,  placing  the  good 
on  one  side  and  the  evil  on  the  other.  If  one  has  injured 
his  neighbour,  a  corresponding  amount  of  his  good  deeds 
will  be  taken  from  him  and  placed  to  the  credit  of  the 
one  injured.  If  he  has  no  good  deeds  to  give,  then  a 
part  of  the  evil  deeds  of  the  one  he  injured  will  be  placed 
on  his  scales.  After  this  judgment  comes  the  trial  of  the 
bridge.  All  will  follow  Mohammed  over  the  bridge 
"  El-Serab  "  that  crosses  the  abyss  of  hell  and  is  as  narrow 
as  the  edge  of  a  sword.  The  faithful  are  led  by  a  light 
cross  safely  into  Paradise,  the  unbelievers  fall  into  Ge- 
henna or  Hell.  Between  Paradise  and  Hell  is  a  neutral 
space,  "El-Araf,"  a  country  deprived  of  rest  and  joy,  and 
is  reserved  for  children  and  idiots,  or  such  as  have  done 
neither  good  nor  evil,  or  such  as  whose  evil  and  good  are 
of  equal  weight. 

Hell  is  not  represented  as  a  place  of  everlasting  tor- 
ment. By  the  grace  of  God  it  is  possible  to  leave  it 
through  the  intercessory  prayers  of  the  holy  or  by  the  ful- 
filment of  certain  religious  rites  by  them  in  the  name  of 
the  dead;  as  pilgrimages  to  Mecca. 

Paradise  is  represented  as  a  place  gratifying  every  sen- 
sual instinct  of  man.  In  describing  this  Paradise,  Mo- 
hammed, who  was  brought  up  in  the  arid  desert,  dwells 
much  upon  descriptions  of  flowing  water,  and  of  green 
gardens  inhabited  by  women  who  never  grow  old. 

When  the  true  believer  has  passed  through  the  various 
trials  and  judgment  and  become  purified  of  his  sins,  he 
refreshes  himself  at  the  pond  of  the  Prophet  or  the  lake 
of  sweet-smelling  water  into  which  flows  the  river  of 
Paradise,  the  "  El-Kansir."  When  the  believer  has 
drunk  of  this  water  the  angel  Rizvan  will  open  to  him 


SUNNITES  AND   SHIITES  77 

the  doors  of  "  El-Djenet,"  or  the  garden  of  Paradise,  the 
ground  of  which  is  formed  of  wheaten  flour  perfumed 
and  scattered  with  pearls  and  hyacinths.  Rivers  of  pure 
water,  wine,  milk  and  honey  flow  between  banks  covered 
with  flowers  and  musk.  In  Paradise  is  also  to  be  found 
the  tree  "  tuba,"  the  branches  of  which  are  loaded  with 
fruits  that  bend  themselves  to  the  hand  of  those  wishing 
to  gather  them.  The  garments  of  the  faithful  sparkle 
with  precious  stones. 

Each  possesses  hundreds  of  servants  who  offer  food  and 
drink  of  which  one  can  partake  without  ever  being  sati- 
ated. Every  true  believer  here  finds,  aside  from  his 
earthly  wives,  seventy  "  hour-el-ayoun  " — houris. 

The  interpretation  of  the  Koran  has  given  rise  to  an 
enormous  amount  of  literature,  and  its  commentators  are 
the  subject  of  not  only  theological  but  legal  learning. 
The  Koran  itself  is  written  in  Arabic,  as  are  all  prayers, 
commentaries  and  judicial  interpretations  of  the  same. 
The  Koran  is  divided  into  chapters — "suras" — and  the 
chapters  into  verses.  According  to  the  teaching  of  the 
Koran  the  principal  factors  towards  gaining  admission  to 
Paradise  are  prayers,  fasts,  almsgiving,  pilgrimages  to 
sacred  places  and  sacred  wars — djakads. 

Prayer  can  be  offered  only  when  in  a  state  of  purity  in 
the  sense  of  physical  cleanliness.     Prayers  otherwise  of- 
fered are  not  only  unanswered,  but  are  considered  as  sin- 
ful.    From  this  rises  the  necessity  of  ablytions  which  are    A 
either  general,  "  el-vezu,"  or  partial,  "  el-husel."     In  the     \ 
absence  of  water,  sand  is  permitted  as  a  medium  for  clean- 
liness, "  el-taeamul." 

The  teachings  concerning  water  suitable  for  these  ab- 
lutions occupy  many  pages  of  theological  writings,  as 
well  as  the  method  of  washing,  from  the  shoulder  to  the 
wrist  or  the  reverse,  and  of  the  quantity  of  water  to  be 
used. 


78 

From  this  basis  rises  the  dogma  of  all  existing  matter 
being  divided  into  pure  and  impure,  which  occupies  a 
special  place  in  theological  teaching  and  in  which  are  de- 
tailed all  pure  and  impure  objects,  as  well  as  certain 
physiological  functions  and  conditions  after  the  perform- 
ance of  which  one  is  rendered  impure.  Among  the  in- 
disputably impure  are  human  excrements,  certain  ani- 
mals, as  dogs,  swine,  scaleless  fish,  bodies  of  the  dead, 
carcasses  of  all  animals  dying  a  natural  death,  unbelievers 
— that  is,  those  of  other  than  the  Moslem  faith  (Chris- 
tians, Jews),  idolaters — intoxicating  drinks  and  all  that  is 
'  fermented. 

Touching  any  of  these  objects,  or  certain  physiological 
conditions  also  render  a  person  impure.  Clothing  touch- 
ing an  impure  object,  especially  if  the  object  be  wet,  be- 
comes defiled.  In  this  case  the  garments  must  be  washed 
several  times.  This  explains  the  reason  of  Mohamme- 
dans so  carefully  avoiding  contact  with  Christians  on  a 
rainy  day.  Our  Christian  servants  always  dreaded  going 
to  the  bazaars  in  bad  weather,  where  they  were  avoided 
as  lepers.  In  many  parts  of  the  East  one  may  notice  the 
lips  of  a  Mohammedan  moving  when  shaking  hands  with 
a  European.  He  is  repeating  the  prayer  for  purifica- 
tion after  touching  your  hand!  This  also  explains  the 
fact  that  in  former  times  all  Christian  or  other  than  Mo- 
hammedan subjects  were  obliged  by  their  Moslem  ruler 
to  wear  clothes  distinguishing  them,  so  that  the  true  be- 
liever might  avoid  defilement.  In  Persia  this  custom  ex- 
isted in  the  past  century,  and  in  Bokhara  is  now  enforced 
in  regard  to  Jews. 

And  so  having  performed  his  ablutions,  the  Mohamme- 
dan begins  his  prayer.  Prayers  are  divided  into  those 
for  every  day,  feast  days,  and  prayers  for  special  seasons, 
for  danger,  earthquakes,  etc. 

Daily  prayers  must  be  performed  five  times  a  day  at 


79 

stated  hours,  and  are  therefore  divided  into  morning  or 
"  Selat-ess-subh,"  which  is  performed  just  before  the 
dawn;  "  Selat-ess-zuhr,"  noon-time  prayer;  "  Selat-el- 
asr,"  the  prayer  two  hours  before  sunset;  "  Selat-el-Ma- 
grif,"  after  sundown;  "  Selat-el-asha,"  between  sunset 
and  midnight. 

As  the  hour  for  prayer  approaches  Mohammedan 
towns  ring  with  the  sound  of  the  "  muezzin  "  called  from 
the  minarets  in  Sunnite  countries  and  from  the  roofs  of 
mosques  in  Shiite  lands.  As  the  time  for  prayer  ap- 
proaches every  one  goes  to  prepare  for  it;  often  in  the 
middle  of  a  conversation,  as  the  cry  of  the  muezzin  is 
heard,  a  Mohammedan  will  break  a  half-finished  sen- 
tence, saying  apologetically,  "  It  is  the  time  of  Namaz," 
and  hasten  off  to  perform  his  ablutions,  returning  to  say 
his  prayer  where  he  happened  to  be  when  the  call  came. 
Wherever  the  hour  of  prayer  finds  him,  the  Mohamme- 
dan prays — in  the  shop,  in  the  fields;  without  hesitation 
he  prays  even  in  the  street.  During  prayers  the  face 
must  be  turned  towards  Mecca,  called  "  Kebleh"  or  the 
"  centre."  Most  Mohammedans  carry  a  little  compass 
to  be  exact  in  finding  the  point.  During  the  prayer  there 
are  prescribed  numbers  of  genuflections  and  prostrations 
wrhen  the  forehead  must  touch  the  ground.  For  this  the 
Shiites  use  a  "mohr"  or  "torba,"  a  small  clay  tablet 
about  the  size  of  a  silver  dollar,  made  of  earth  taken  from 
the  tomb  of  some  Imam.  This  tablet  is  placed  on  the 
ground  in  front  of  the  prayer,  who  during  prostrations 
touches  it  with  his  forehead.  On  the  foreheads  of  some 
Moslems,  from  frequent  and  vigorous  prostrations,  a  dark 
blue  mark  is  formed,  the  unmistakable  sign  of  a  religious 
fanatic. 

Most  Mohammedans  have  £raygj:,rpgs  that  they  carry 
with  them  when  on  a  journey.  During  prayers  it  is  un- 
lawful to  wear  anything  made  of  leather  or  of  pure  silk. 


8o          LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

An  exception  to  this  rule  is  made  for  women.  Also  gold 
may  not  be  worn  and  gold  rings  or  watches  must  be  re- 
moved. For  this  reason  true  Moslems  generally  prefer 
silver  rings  and  watches,  and  one  usually  sees  in  Persia 
the  most  precious  stones  in  silver  settings. 

As  to  fasts,  Mohammedans  observe  the  entire  month  of 
Ramadan,  during  which  time  they  neither  eat  nor  drink 
from  sunrise  to  sunset. 

Pilgrimages  to  Mecca  are  obligatory  on  all  Moham- 
medans, and  aside  from  this,  Shiites  visit  the  tombs  of 
imams  buried  in  Persia  and  Turkey.  Almsgiving  is 
also  obligatory  on  all  believers.  This  is  commanded  in 
the  Koran  in  the  form  of  benevolent  donations  and  indi- 
vidual help.  Secret  benevolence  is  preferred  to  that 
done  in  public.  Aside  from  this,  in  the  i2th  verse  of  the 
8th  Sura,  Mohammed  ordains  that  one-fifth  of  all  prop- 
erty is  to  go  to  the  Prophet  and  to  the  poor.  In  the  early 
days  of  Islamism  this  one-fifth  offering,  "  Humz,"  went 
into  a  common  treasury,  "  beyt-ul-mae,"  that  was  con- 
trolled by  the  people.  There  is  also  a  certain  sum  paid 
by  every  Mohammedan  for  benevolent  objects.  A  cer- 
tain day,  too,  is  set  aside  upon  which  almsgiving  is  or- 
dained. 

Finally,  the  last  condition  for  obtaining  Paradise  is 
"sacred  war,"  which,  during  the  first  years  of  the  propa- 
gation of  Islamism,  played  an  important  role  in  the 
spread  of  the  faith  of  Mohammed.  Formerly,  at  least 
twice  a  year,  sacred  warfare  was  considered  obligatory, 
but  in  course  of  time  naturally  they  became  less  frequent. 
Holy  war,  or  "  djahad,"  can  be  proclaimed  only  by  the 
caliph,  as  the  sultan,  and  by  raising  the  sacred  banner  of 
the  Prophet.  In  the  past  century,  however,  djahad  was 
proclaimed  several  times  without  the  sacred  banner.  In 
Persia  during  the  first  half  of  the  last  century  the  sacred 
war  was  carried  on  in  a  most  original  way.  Each  year 


SUNNITES   AND    SHIITES  81 

a  fanatical  mob  attacked  the  Christian  houses,  breaking 
the  wine  jars,  and  in  passing  did  not  neglect  the  oppor- 
tunity of  robbing  and  pillaging  the  houses. 

The  above-mentioned  religious  requirements  are  com- 
mon to  the  Sunnites  and  Shiites. 

The  split  in  the  Mohammedan  world  took  place  in  the 
first  century  of  the  hegira.  The  distinction  between  the 
two  sects  is  set  forth  in  the  definition  of  their  names. 
Sunnite  signifies  habits — rules  of  life.  The  Sunnites  call 
themselves  thus  as  they  accept  the  traditions  handed  down 
by  disciples  of  Mohammed,  as  to  the  sayings  and  teach- 
ings of  the  Prophet  in  regard  to  various  points  of  cere- 
monials and  religious  laws  which  are  not  directly  touched 
upon  in  the  Koran.  The  Shiahs  or  Shiites,  on  the  other 
hand,  do  not  accept  any  traditions  except  those  given  by 
the  imams,  i.e.,  Mohammed's  son-in-law,  Ali,  and  his 
eleven  successors ;  and  therefore  they  call  them  "  sieh," 
or  protestors,  in  favour  of  the  truth. 

The  immediate  cause  of  the  disagreement  was,  however, 
political.  Mohammed  died,  not  having  appointed  a 
successor,  though,  as  the  Shiites  affirm,  he  more  than  once 
mentioned  his  cousin  and  son-in-law  Ali  as  his  chosen  suc- 
cessor. Ali  was,  however,  younger  than  his  rival  can- 
didates and  did  not  possess  such  influence  as  they  did. 
While  he  was  busy  arranging  for  the  burial  of  Moham- 
med, Abu-Bekr  was  chosen  as  caliph.  Ali  himself  ac- 
cepted this  nomination  as  he  did  those  of  the  following 
caliphs,  Omar  and  Osman;  following  them  Ali  was 
chosen  caliph,  but  fell  soon  after  at  the  hands  of  an 
assassin. 

The  followers  of  Ali,  however,  look  upon  Abu-Bekr, 
Omar  and  Osman  as  usurpers,  and  consider  Ali  to  be  the 
only  rightful  successor,  bringing  as  arguments  his  near 
relationship  to  the  Prophet  and  the  fact  of  Mohammed's 
having  repeatedly  in  the  hearing  of  the  people  named  Ali 


82  LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

as  his  successor.  This  is  the  origin  of  the  Shiite  venera- 
tion of  Ali  and  his  eleven  successors. 

To  this,  too,  can  be  traced  the  change  in  the  formula 
of  their  faith  by  the  addition  of  the  name  of  Ali  to  the 
Shiite's  creed.  The  Sunnite  profession  of  faith,  "  There 
is  but  one  God,  and  his  prophet  Mohammed,"  becomes  in 
the  Shiite  mouth,  "  There  is  but  one  God,  and  Moham- 
med his  prophet,  and  Ali  his  viceroy."  This  is  the  chief 
distinction  between  the  two  beliefs. 

In  addition  to  this  follows  the  Shiite  veneration  of  the 
twelve  imams,  whose  fate  was  for  the  most  part  tragical, 
as  the  greater  number  of  them  met  with  violent  deaths; 
Ali  himself,  becoming  caliph  in  660  A.D.,  was  killed 
five  years  later  when  praying  in  a  mosque.  He  is  buried 
in  Nedjef  in  the  mosque  called  Meshedi  Ali.  His  son 
and  heir,  the  second  Caliph  Hassan,  was,  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  the  rival  political  faction,  poisoned  by  his  own 
wife;  he  is  buried  in  Medina.  His  brother  Hussein, 
counted  as  the  third  caliph,  fell  in  68 1  in  an  unequal 
fight  at  Kerbela,  together  with  all  of  his  sons  except  one, 
Imam  Ali,  known  as  Zein-el-Abdeen,  who  was  also  sub- 
sequently poisoned.  His  tomb  is  in  Medina.  The  same 
fate  was  that  of  the  imams  following  him:  Mohammed- 
el-Bager  and  Imam  Jaffar,  or  Djaffar,  buried  in  Medina. 
Imam  Musa-el-Kazema  is  buried  in  Kazmain  near  Bag- 
dad. The  eighth  imam,  Ali-el-Riza,  diedr  a  natural 
death  and  is  buried  in  the  Persian  city  of  Meshed.  Imam 
Mohammed-el-Djerad  is  buried  in  Kazmain.  The  tenth, 
Ali-el-Hadi,  is  buried  in  Samara,  near  Bagdad;  the  elev- 
enth, Hassan-al-Askeri,  is  buried  in  Kazmain;  and  the 
last,  Mehdi,  is  buried  also  in  Samara. 

In  the  person  of  the  Mehdi,  the  last  direct  descendant 
of  Ali,  the  line  ended.  B\it  the  Shiites  could  not  be  rec- 
onciled to  this  fact.  They  sincerely  believe  that  Imam 
Mehdi  is  still  alive,  and  with  his  life  is  connected  the  very 


SUNNITES   AND    SHIITES  83 

existence  of  the  world,  before  the  end  of  which  he  will 
again  make  his  appearance,  to  convert  all  unbelievers  to 
the  Shiite  faith.  His  appearance  will  immediately  pre- 
cede that  of  Jesus  Christ  and  His  struggle  with  the  Anti- 
Christ,  "  Dedjalem."  For  this  reason  Imam  Mehdi  is 
called  "Kaim"  or  "Imam  akherie  zeman,"  i.e.,  the  Lat- 
ter-day Imam.  From  this  belief  rises  the  Shiite  dogma 
of  Imamism,  or  the  spiritual  succession  of  the  imams  in 
the  persons  of  Mudjtaheids. 

The  Imam  Mehdi,  continuing  his  invisible  existence, 
makes  known  his  will  through  the  medium  of  certain 
Mudjtaheids  whose  holy  life  and  learning  have  made 
them  worthy  of  being  the  intermediary  between  the  imam 
and  the  people,  giving  to  them  the  commands  of  the 
imam.  In  this  way  each  Mudjtaheid  may  be  regarded 
as  an  independent  interpreter  of  the  Koran.  Each  one 
writes  for  his  followers  or  "  Mukabeids "  rules  to  guide 
their  belief.  The  popularity  of  a  Mudjtaheid  is  estimated 
by  the  number  of  his  followers,  and  in  the  history  of  Per- 
sia individual  Mudjtaheids  having  over  a  million  follow- 
ers are  not  rare.  This,  of  course,  leads  to  disagreements, 
and  to  new  sects  that  are  so  frequently  formed  among 
Shiites.  For  instance,  in  the  first  half  of  the  past  century 
the  Mudjtaheid  of  Kazveen  Mullah  Mohammed  Ali 
publicly  denied  the  existence  of  the  impure  in  nature. 
All  the  clergy  rose  against  this  doctrine,  but  they  were 
unable  to  do  anything  as  he  was  a  Mudjtaheid.  Later 
Mullah  Mohammed  joined  the  sect  of  Babis. 

Mudjtaheids  have  always  occupied  a  very  important 
place  in  the  history  of  Shiite  Persia.  Being  the  direct  in- 
terpreters of  the  Koran  and  God's  will,  they  held  and 
are  holding  all  the  justice  of  the  land  in  their  hands,  as 
all  Moslem  law  is  based  on  the  Koran.  Hence  the  legal 
and  religious  life  of  the  people  is  entirely  governed  by 
the  clergy.  As  the  interpreters  of  the  Koran,  the  Mudj- 


84          LIFE  IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

taheids  are  considered  infallible,  and  their  decision  is  not 
questioned. 

In  Persia  formerly  all  legal  power  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  Mudjtaheids,  the  civil  authorities  acting  only  to  fulfil 
their  decision.  In  criminal  cases  the  sentence  was  car- 
ried out  immediately,  and  frequently  by  the  Mudjtaheids 
themselves. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  the  Ispahan  Mudjtaheid, 
Aga  Seyid  Eager,  frequently  fulfilled  personally  the  of- 
fice of  executioner,  and  often  the  condemned,  knowing 
that  a  repeal  was  impossible,  begged  for  the  privilege  of 
dying  by  the  holy  hands  of  the  Mudjtaheid  rather  than  by 
those  of  the  ordinary  headsman.  When  the  Kadjar  dy- 
nasty came  to  the  throne  of  Persia,  these  rulers  gradually 
took  to  themselves  jurisdictory  power  in  many  indisput- 
able cases  of  civil  law  and  crimes  against  public  order. 
At  the  present  time  the  clergy  are  the  judges  exclusively 
in  cases  pertaining  to  family  life — marriage,  divorce,  and 
crimes  against  the  faith;  in  all  disputed  judicial  cases 
capable  of  being  settled  on  oaths ;  and  finally  such  crimes 
as  are  punishable  by  death,  excepting  those  that  are  di- 
rected against  public  security,  the  punishment  of  which 
is  meted  out  by  the  civil  authorities. 

As  a  part  of  their  veneration  of  the  twelve  imams,  the 
Shiites  naturally  introduced  their  hatred  of  the  usurpers, 
Abu-Bckr,  Omar  and  Osman ;  against  Omar,  because  he 
was  the  first  to  dispute  the  rights  of  Ali.  The  abhorrence 
in  which  he  is  held  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  when  his 
name  is  mentioned  a  Shiite  will  always  add,  "  May  his 
name  be  cursed."  The  day  of  his  death  is  feted  through- 
out all  Persia,  his  effigy  subjected  to  all  sorts  of  indignity 
and  finally  burned,  and  his  murderer,  Abu  Luhi,  has  a 
monument  erected  to  his  memory  in  Kashan. 

It  can  be  easily  understood,  therefore,  how  the  hatred 
between  these  two  sects  continues,  and  that  this  division 
has  been  a  misfortune  to  the  Moslem  East,  causing  a  series 


85 

of  bloody  wars;  persecutions  of  Shiites  in  Turkey  and  of 
Sunnites  in  Persia;  and  sowing  such  enmity  between  the 
two  people  as  continues  to  the  present  time.  This  feeling 
is  fanned  by  the  fact  of  most  of  the  Shiite  holy  places  be- 
ing in  Turkey,  which  thus  possesses  the  keys  to  three 
great  religions — Christian,  Hebrew  and  Mohammedan. 

During  the  wars  between  Persia  and  Turkey  the  Sun- 
nite  ulemas  issued  special  orders  or  "  fetwas  "  in  which 
was  promulgated  the  idea  that  the  killing  of  one  Shiite 
was  more  meritorious  than  the  death  of  seventy  Chris- 
tians or  any  other  enemies  of  Islam.  On  the  other  hand  the 
Shiites  put  their  Sunnite  prisoners  to  a  lingering  death 
of  torment.  For  this  reason  all  peaceful  contracts  signed 
by  the  sultan  and  shah  begin  with  a  clause  annulling  the 
anathema  against  the  first  three  caliphs  and  an  agree- 
ment for  freedom  of  religion  for  all  Sunnites  living  in 
Persia. 

The  Shiites  have  been  the  ruling  power  in  Persia  only 
since  the  reign  of  Shah  Ismael  Ardabeli,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  who  anathematised  Ayesha,  the  favourite  wife  of 
the  Prophet,  as  well  as  the  first  three  caliphs.  He  tore 
down  all  Sunnite  tombs  and  places  of  worship  and  cruelly 
persecuted  such  of  his  subjects  as  belonged  to  the  Sunnite 
sect. 

Such  an  attitude  toward  Sunnites  could  not  fail  to  ex- 
cite the  indignation  of  Sultan  Selim  I,1  who  in  1514  de- 
clared war  against  Shah  Ismael.  This  declaration  was 
in  a  letter  sent  by  special  messenger  and  is  one  of  the  most 
curious  historical  documents  existing,  showing  as  it  does 
the  Sunnite  estimation  of  Shiites  as  heretics  and  rene- 
gades. This  document  is  also  interesting  as  a  specimen 
of  the  flowery  style  of  the  time,  and  the  primitive  rela- 
tions existing  between  the  potentates  of  the  East.  The 
following  is  a  translation  of  parts  of  this  remarkable 
epistle. 

1  Reigning  from  1512  to  1520. 


86  LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

"The  Supreme  Being,  who  is  the  sovereign  arbiter  of 
the  destiny  of  man,  says  in  his  writings1  that  the  truth  is 
only  to  be  found  in  the  Moslem  religion,  and  all  those 
who  seek  salvation  by  any  other  means  will  be  condemned 
at  the  day  of  the  last  judgment.  This  God  of  truth  also 
declares  that  his  decree  is  unchangeable  and  that  all  the 
actions  of  men  must  be  guided  by  him,  and  that  all  devi- 
ation from  his  path  will  be  punished  by  fire  and  ever- 
lasting torment.  Count  us,  Lord,  among  the  true  believers 
who  walk  in  the  paths  of  salvation  and  who  turn  carefully 
from  the  temptation  of  the  infidels  and  the  damned.  May 
the  blessings  of  the  pure  and  holy  be  upon  Mohammed  Ul 
Mustapha,2  Prince  of  two  worlds,  the  Chief  among 
prophets,  and  upon  all  his  disciples  and  descendants. 

"  The  Ottoman  monarch,  the  master  of  the  heroes  of  the 
age,  equal  with  Feridun3  in  force  and  might;  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  in  majesty  and  glory,  and  of  King 
Khvasrew  in  justice  and  mercy;  the  exterminator  of  the 
unbelievers  and  idolaters,  the  destroyer  of  the  enemies  of 
the  orthodox  faith ;  the  terror  of  tyrants  and  the  Pharaoh 
of  the  age,  who  breaks  the  sceptres  and  crowns  of  the 
greatest  Potentates  of  the  world — the  glorious  Sultan 
Selim  Khan,  son  of  Sultan  Bayazid  Khan,  son  of  Sultan 
Mohammed  Khan,  son  of  Sultan  Murod  Khan,  gra- 
ciously addresses  a  word  to  thee,  Emir  Ismael,  ruler  of 
Persia,  the  Sipchralar,  or  Commander  in  chief  of  the 
royal  forces,  the  Zohak4  of  the  Orient,  the  Efrassiab5  of 
the  century,  the  Dara6  of  our  days.  To  thee  we  write  to 

lThe  Koran. 

2  The  title  of  the  prophets. 

8  The  sixth  king  of  the  Persian  dynasty  of  Pishadies. 

4  The  fifth  king  of  the  Pishdadian  dynasty,  a  usurper  and  noted  for  his 
cruelty. 

B  The  ninth  king  of  the  same  dynasty,  as  unfortunate  as  he  was  cruel. 

6  The  last  king  of  the  same  dynasty,  Darius  Codomannus,  overthrown  by 
Alexander  the  Great. 


SUNNITES  AND   SHIITES  87 

make  known  to  thee  that  the  works  of  the  hand  of  the 
Most  High  are  not  the  frail  productions  of  caprice  or  de- 
ris:on  but  contain  an  infinity  of  mysteries  which  are  not 
to  be  penetrated  by  human  understanding.  God  himself 
says  in  his  holy  book,1  'We  have  created  heaven  and 
earth  for  a  play.' ' 

Then  follows  a  long  resume  of  the  perfection  of  man 
— God's  image  and  likeness  upon  earth — who  is  capable 
of  receiving  Godlike  knowledge  from  the  holy  book,  that 
is  the  Koran.  Further  on  he  shows  that  it  is  only  by 
closely  following  these  teachings  and  keeping  them  pure 
that  everlasting  happiness  can  be  had  in  a  future  life. 
After  this  Selim  addresses  Ismael  Shah  personally  in  the 
following  terms : 

"  But  Emir  Ismael,  such  bliss  shall  never  be  thine^;  for 
thou  hast  turned  thy  face  from  the  divine  laws;  because 
thou  hast  left  the  path  of  salvation  and  the  holy  com- 
mandments; because  thou  hast  broken  the  purity  of  the 
Moslem  dogmas;  dishonoured,  destroyed,  the  true  cult 
of  God,  and  usurped  the  domains  of  the  Orient  unjustly 
and  tyrannically.  For  thou,  rising  from  the  dust,  hast  ele- 
vated thyself  in  an  odious  manner  to  a  position  of  great- 
ness and  magnificence;  because  thou  hast  opened  to  the 
Moslem  the  door  of  tyranny  and  oppression;  because 
thou  in  thy  unbelief  hast  joined  iniquity,  infidelity,  and 
the  blasphemy  of  an  impious  sect;  because,  protected  by 
the  mouth  of  lies  and  hypocrisy,  thou  hast  sowed  on 
every  side  trouble  and  sedition;  because  thou  hast  raised 
the  standard  of  godlessness  and  heresy;  because  finally 
thou  givest  rein  to  thy  caprices  and  passions,  thy  infamous 
lawlessness;  thou  hast  the  sin  of  having  unloosed  the 
sacred  ties  of  the  Mohammedan  laws,  in  permitting  the 
profanation  of  virgins;  the  massacre  of  many  virtuous 
and  respectable  persons;  the  destruction  of  temples  and 

1  Verse  of  the  Koran. 


88          LIFE  IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

of  sacred  edifices;  the  demolition  of  the  tombs  of  many 
faithful  and  pure  souls;  despising  ulemas,  the  doctors 
and  emirs,  the  issue  of  the  Prophet's  blood;  and  hast 
anathematised  the  legitimate  and  venerable  caliphs 
Omar  and  Osman." 

Further  on  he  says  that,  as  it  is  the  duty  of  every  Mo- 
hammedan to  stand  up  in  defence  of  his  profaned  reli- 
gion, he,  Selim,  has  resolved, 

"  To  exchange  our  Imperial  ornaments  for  cuirass  and 
coat  of  mail,  to  unfurl  our  ever-victorious  banner,  to  call 
forth  our  invincible  army,  to  draw  our  glorious  arms  from 
the  furnace  of  our  anger  and  our  indignation,  and  march 
our  troops,  whose  swords  spare  none,  whose  lances  deal 
mortal  blows,  and  whose  arrows  pierce  the  enemy  even 
to  the  constellation  of  Sagittarius. 

"  In  consequence  of  this  noble  and  firm  resolution  we 
have  started  on  our  campaign.  We  have  crossed  the 
straits  of  Constantinople  and  are  proceeding  under  the 
shadow  of  the  protection  of  the  Most  High.  We  hope 
with  his  help  soon  to  break  the  arms  of  evil  and  tyranny; 
remove  from  thy  head  the  smoke  of  greatness  and  heroism 
which  cause  thee  such  dizziness;  release  the  feeble  and 
oppressed  from  the  weight  of  the  cruel  yoke  of  thy  do- 
minion; and  finally  to  suffocate  thee  in  that  turbulent 
flame  and  smoke  that  are  vomited  forth  from  thy  seditious 
and  demoralised  deeds,  and  in  this  way  verify  upon  thine 
own  self  the  proverb,  *  He  who  sows  thorns  can  only 
harvest  affliction  and  bitterness.'  However,  to  conform 
ourselves  to  the  spirit  of  the  law  of  our  holy  Prophet,  we 
would,  before  resorting  to  arms,  present  to  thee,  instead 
of  the  sword,  the  sacred  Koran,  and  to  exhort  thee  to  em- 
brace the  orthodox  faith :  this  is  why  we  write  thee  this 
Imperial  letter. 

"  Every  man  has  his  own  individual  nature,  and  the 


SUNNITES  AND   SHIITES  89 

human  race  is  as  mines  of  gold  and  of  silver.  There  are 
people  in  whom  the  perverse  character  is  as  second  na- 
ture and  renders  them  incorrigible.  Such  are  negroes, 
who  in  vain  try  to  whiten  their  skin.  There  are  others 
who  correct  themselves  and  rise  above  their  errors,  as  in 
them  the  evil  is  not  deeply  rooted,  and  by^  attentive  self- 
restraint  they  mortify  their  senses,  and  suppress  the 
vicious  inclinations  of  their  natures." 

He  then  calls  upon  Shah  Ismael  to  repent  and  renounce 
his  religious  errors,  as  well  as  the  land  that  formerly  be- 
longed to  the  Ottoman  Empire.  In  conclusion  he  says: 

"  This  resolution  thou  must  at  once  take  in  view  of 
thine  own  self-preservation  and  felicity.  But  if,  to  thy 
sorrow,  thou  continuest  in  thine  errors,  and  carried  away 
by  the  idea  of  thy  greatness,  thy  power  and  thy  foolish 
daring,  if  thou  art  obstinate  in  thy  blind,  iniquitous,  and 
perverse  conduct,  thou  wilt  soon  see  these  vast  plains  that 
are  now  in  thy  tyrannical  and  usurping  hands,  all  adorned 
with  our  tents  and  our  brilliant  ensigns,  and  all  covered 
with  our  victorious  armies.  And  then  will  be  fulfilled 
what  is  decreed  in  the  secret  councils  of  the  Most  High, 
who  is  the  God  of  armies  and  the  sovereign  judge  of  all 
human  actions.  Peace  be  to  him  who  follows  in  the  path 
of  peace." 

This  letter  is  to  be  found  in  the  chronicles  of  Sayed-ed- 
deen  Effendi,  the  official  historian  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. 

The  wars  that  followed  led  to  the  Turkish  occupation 
of  the  then  very  considerable  provinces  of  Diarbekir  and 
Kurdistan.  Later  the  victorious  expeditions  against  the 
Egyptian  Mamelukes  brought  under  Selim's  sway  Egypt, 
Syria,  the  Hedjaz,  Mecca  and  Medina — the  Mohamme- 
dan Palestine — together  with  the  silver  key  of  the  Kaaba 
given  to  the  conqueror  by  the  sheikh  of  Mecca.  This 


90  LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

key  is  in  the  coverings  that  envelop  the  sacred  banner 
of  the  Prophet,  that  also  passed  into  Selim's  hands  to- 
gether with  other  relics  that  are  now  in  Constantinople. 

These  relics  are  the  following: 

The  sacred  banner  of  the  Prophet,  or  Ukab-es-Sherif, 
which  was  considered  the  most  holy  oriflamme  of  the 
Prophet,  as  he  possessed  several,  black  and  white.  I  will 
notice  in  passing  that  in  the  pagan  pre-Mohammedan 
times,  the  tribe  of  Kureish,  who  guarded  the  Kaaba,  also 
possessed  a  banner  called  the  "  Eukab,"  from  the  name  of 
a  legendary  bird  whose  flight  was  swifter  than  that  of  all 
other  birds.  But  this  banner  is  even  more  ancient.  It  is 
traced  to  the  period  of  the  ancient  Parsis,  to  the  time  of 
the  mythical  King  Zohak,  fifth  of  the  Pejdad  dynasty,  of 
whom  I  had  occasion  to  speak  above.  Zohak  was,  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  a  tyrant  of  unrivalled  cruelty,  as  each 
day  two  human  beings  were  put  to  death  by  his  orders 
and  their  brains  used  as  a  salve  for  sores  that  he  had  on 
his  shoulders.  This  continued  until  a  blacksmith  of  Ispa- 
han named  Kiab,  whose  two  sons  were  killed  by  the  shah, 
raised  a  rebellion.  In  his  grief  he  nailed  his  mantle  to  a 
stick  and  raising  it  addressed  a  fiery  speech  to  the  people. 
Zohak  fled  to  Mount  Damavand  and  the  people  offered 
the  throne  to  Kiab.  The  latter  refused  the  honour  and 
proposed  Feridun,  Jamshid's  grandson.  This  took 
place  at  the  period  of  the  autumnal  equinox,  and  from 
that  time  the  people  commemorate  the  day  as  a  "  bairam  " 
or  "  Mehredjan."  Becoming  shah,  Feridun,  in  grati- 
tude to  Kiab,  raised  him  to  one  of  the  most  important 
positions  in  the  kingdom,  decorating  his  mantle  with 
precious  stones  and  making  it  the  royal  banner,  calling  it 
"  Derefshi  Kiabenie,"  the  standard  of  Kiab.  From  that 
time  the  Persian  royal  standard  has  borne  that  name.  This 
standard  was  taken  in  636  during  the  time  of  Omar  in 
the  battle  of  Rodesi  that  ended  fatally  for  Jazdedjir  III. 


SUNNITES   AND    SHIITES  91 

The  same  position  occupied  by  the  standard  of  Kiab 
among  the  Persians  was  in  Mecca  occupied  by  their 
standard  called  the  "  Eukab,"  which  they  venerated. 
Mohammed,  therefore,  had  a  clear  understanding  of 
the  importance  in  the  eyes  of  the  people,  of  standards,  and 
took  one  with  him  on  all  his  expeditions.  Of  the  origin 
of  the  sacred  Turkish  standard  the  Turkish  historian 
Ahmed  Effendi  gives  the  following  account: 

"  During  his  flight  from  Mecca  to  Medina,  Moham- 
med, with  two  of  his  followers,  performed  many  mira- 
cles. When  his  enemies  overtook  him,  with  one  word  he 
dispersed  some,  and  others  he  turned  into  his  followers. 
Among  the  latter  was  one  named  Sekhmi,  who,  from  a 
bitter  enemy,  was  by  a  miracle  (as  in  case  of  the  New 
Testament  Saul)  turned  into  a  fervent  follower  of  Mo- 
hammed. On  the  way,  in  a  burst  of  religious  fervour, 
Sekhmi  unwound  his  turban  and  fixing  it  to  his  lance, 
presented  it  as  a  banner  to  Mohammed.  This  was  Mo- 
hammed's first  standard,  and  since  then  all  Turkish  stand" 
ards  have,  in  commemoration  of  the  man,  been  called 
"  Sekhmi,"  making  it  a  common  noun.  The  standard 
accompanied  Mohammed  in  such  battles  as  he  took 
part  in  personally,  and  it  was  with  him  when  he  occupied 
Mecca." 

"  After  the  death  of  Mohammed,"  continues  the  same 
historian,  "  Abu-Bekr  himself  first  gave  the  example  of 
deep  veneration  of  this  sacred  relic.  The  honour  of  carry- 
ing the  banner  was  given  to  the  commander  in  chief  and 
it  was  entitled  Eukab,  or  Sanjak-es-Sherif,  the  sacred 
standard.  Then  the  standard  passed  successively  to  the 
caliphs  of  the  Ommiads,  in  Damascus,  then  to  the  Abbas- 
side  of  Bagdad,  and  finally  to  Cairo,  and  with  the  con- 
quest of  Egypt  by  Selim  I.  was  by  him  brought  to  the 
Ottoman  capital.  This  standard  is  covered  by  other 
banners  belonging  to  the  Caliph  Omar,  then  in  forty  cov- 


92          LIFE  IN  THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

erings  of  taffeta,  and  all  of  these  are  enveloped  in  green 
cloth  coverings.  Perhaps  this  latter  circumstance  has 
given  rise  to  the  universal  belief  that  the  colour  of  the 
standard  itself  is  green,  whereas  it  is  in  fact  of  black  wool. 
Within  these  coverings  is  also  laid  a  small  Koran,  writ- 
ten, as  it  is  supposed,  by  the  hand  of  Omar;  also  the  sil- 
ver key  of  the  Kaaba  which  was  given  in  token  of  sub- 
mission to  the  same  Selim  I.  The  flagstaff  of  this  ban- 
ner is  mounted  with  a  square  knob  in  which  is  preserved 
another  Koran,  written  by  the  hand  of  the  Caliph  Osman. 

When  the  standard  first  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
Turks  it  was  kept  in  Damascus,  the  governor  or  pasha  of 
which,  in  his  capacity  of  Emir  ul  Haj,1  took  it  with  him 
when  he  accompanied  the  yearly  sacred  caravan  to 
Mecca.  But  in  1595,  during  the  reign  of  Murad  III., 
the  sacred  standard  was  sent  to  Hungary  as  a  stimulant 
and  encouragement  to  the  army  and  people,  and  its  ap- 
pearance among  the  Turkish  forces  did  in  fact  have  a 
tremendous  moral  effect.  During  the  next  expedition 
the  grand  vizier  himself  considered  it  the  greatest  privi- 
lege to  carry  it  out  of  Constantinople.  The  entire  court 
and  population  of  the  city  accompanied  this  relic  as  far 
as  the  outskirts  of  the  town.  In  the  autumn  it  was  again 
returned  to  Constantinople,  and  the  following  spring  Mo- 
hammed III.,  leading  the  army  in  person,  took  with  him 
the  sacred  banner,  confiding  it  to  the  care  of  300  emirs, 
at  the  head  of  which  was  the  chief  "  Kakeb-el-Eshrif." 

From  this  period,  following  precedents  set  by  Moham- 
med III.,  the  standard  was  taken  only  when  the  sultan 
himself  or  the  grand  vizier  led  the  troops.  A  special 
and  luxurious  tent  was  carried  along  for  the  housing  of 
the  sacred  relic.  When  the  troops  went  into  winter 

1  The  title  of  the  person'  to  whom  is  confided  the  leadership  of  the  "  sacred 
caravan  "  sent  to  Mecca  with  the  sultan's  yearly  gift,  at  the  fete  of  Kurban 
Bairam. 


ot 


SUNNITES   AND   SHIITES  93 

quarters  the  banner  was  removed  from  the  staff  and 
packed  away  as  it  generally  was  in  times  of  peace,  in  a 
special  box,  during  which  ceremony  prayers  and  incense 
were  offered.  As  this  most  sacred  banner  accompanies 
the  troops  only  under  exceptional  circumstances  (during 
the  last  war  in  the  nineteenth  century  it  was  not  taken 
out),  its  presence  acts  magically  upon  both  the  army  and 
populace,  exciting  them  to  fanaticism.  The  standard  has 
not  been  used  in  any  ceremonials  since  1769.  In  this 
year,  March  27th,  its  being  taken  out  for  a  certain  cere- 
monial had  the  result  of  causing  a  massacre  of  Christians 
in  Constantinople,  as  the  fanaticism  of  the  public  resented 
its  being  seen  by  the  eyes  of  any  but  Moslems. 

The  second  relic  is  the  mantle  of  the  Prophet,  "  Kherki 
Sherif."  This  is  of  black  camelot,  and  was  worn  by  Mo- 
hammed himself,  who  presented  it  in  630  H.  to  the  famous 
Arab  poet  Kiab-ibu-Zakhir  as  a  reward  for  a  poem  writ- 
ten by  the  latter  in  praise  of  God  and  his  prophet.  The 
Caliph  Unavia  I.  bought  this  garment  from  the  descend- 
ants of  Kiab  and  it  then  passed  from  the  Ommiads  to  the 
Abbassides,  was  preserved  in  Cairo  and  together  with  the 
holy  standard  passed  to  the  Turks  under  Selim  I.  This 
holy  garment  is  preserved  in  forty  bags  of  rich  material. 
It  is  opened  once  a  year,  the  i$th  of  Ramadan,  and  the 
ceremony  is  a  very  solemn  and  gorgeous  one,  at  which 
the  sultan  himself  is  present  standing,  and  all  his  minis- 
ters and  commanders. 

The  keeper  of  the  imperial  seal  stands  close  to  the 
sacred  garments,  and  next  to  him  one  of  the  chief  digni- 
taries of  the  court,  who  holds  a  pile  of  muslin  towels. 
One  after  another  in  order  of  rank  all  those  present  go 
forward  and  kiss  the  sacred  garments;  the  keeper  of  the 
s«al  immediately  wipes  the  spot  kissed  with  a  towel,  which 
he  then  presents  to  the  one  who  has  just  had  the  privilege 
of  kissing  the  holy  relic. 


94          LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

'After  this  ceremony  is  over,  certain  of  the  mufti  and 
Hakeb-el-Eshrif  wash  in  a  large  silver  basin  that  part 
of  the  garment  that  has  been  subjected  to  the  kissing. 
The  water  in  which  it  was  washed  is  poured  into  flacons 
and  sent  to  different  members  of  the  court  and  persons 
of  high  standing.  During  the  remaining  fifteen  days 
of  the  fast — Ramadan —  a  few  drops  of  this  precious  water 
is  added  to  the  water  with  which  they  break  the  fast,  for, 
as  is  known,  the  Mohammedan  fast  comprises  absolute 
abstinence  from  all  drink,  as  well  as  food,  from  sunrise  to 
sunset.  But  of  this  full  details  will  be  given  in  another 
chapter. 

This  mantle  is  not  the  only  one  remaining  after  the 
Prophet's  death.  There  is  another  which,  according  to 
tradition,  was  bequeathed  by  Mohammed  before  his 
death  to  one  of  his  followers,  Uveis-el-Apemie.  The  de- 
scendants of  Uveis  treasure  this  mantle  of  coarse  woollen 
stuff,  and  it  is  passed  down  to  the  eldest  in  each  genera- 
tion. This  family  has  lived  for  nearly  400  years  in  Con- 
stantinople. The  owners  of  the  mantle  bear  the  title  of 
Kirkai  Sherif,  or  the  Sheikh  of  the  Holy  Mantle.  This 
garment  is  also  exposed  during  the  last  fifteen  days  of 
Ramadan  for  the  veneration  of  the  faithful  who  bring 
their  offerings.  The  edge  of  this  mantle  is  also  kissed 
and  again  holy  water  is  given  out.  The  multitude  press- 
ing to  see  this  relic  are  the  more  numerous  from  the  fact 
of  the  populace  not  being  admitted  to  the  relics  kept  in 
the  Seraglio. 

The  third  relic,  "  Seen-esh-Sherif,"  are  two  of  the  four 
teeth  that  the  Prophet  lost  during  the  battle  of  Ukhurdi. 
One  of  these  teeth  is  in  the  Seraglio,  the  other  in  the 
mausoleum  where  is  the  tomb  of  Mohammed  II.  These 
relics  are  shown  to  the  people  the  holy  night — Leilet-ul- 
Kadr — the  27th  of  Ramadan. 

Finally,  the  fourth  relic  is  the  "  Lekheri  Sherif,"  or 


SUNNITES  AND  SHIITES  95 

holy  beard,  more  correctly  a  portion  of  the  beard  belong- 
ing, as  is  affirmed,  to  the  Prophet.  Mohammedans  do  not 
like  to  speak  of  this  relic,  partly  from  a  disinclination  to 
profane  it  by  talking  of  it  with  one  who  is  not  a  Moslem, 
others  from  their  inability  to  prove  its  authenticity. 
However  it  may  be,  I  know  of  three  cases  where  pilgrims 
returning  from  Mecca  while  in  Constantinople  were  al- 
leged to  have  in  some  mysterious  way  become  possessed 
of  one  of  the  sacred  hairs.  One  of  these  hairs  was 
brought  to  Tabriz  in  Persia  when  I  was  there,  another 
to  Meshed,  in  both  cases  causing  an  enormous  sensation 
among  the  people.  These  hairs  were  placed  in  rich  cas- 
kets and  the  people  thronged  in  crowds  to  see  them.  The 
third  case  was  of  interest  in  another  way.  In  1904  an  in- 
habitant of  Osh,  in  the  province  of  Fergana,  an  ex-kadi 
(judge)  bought  in  Constantinople  of  an  old  woman  one 
hair  of  the  beard  of  the  Prophet.  He  intended  going 
from  Batoum  to  Fergana,  through  the  steppes  of  western 
Siberia,  to  the  province  of  Semiryetchensk,  planning  to 
make  a  good  profit  from  the  easily  duped  people;  but  as 
the  casket  that  contained  the  hair  was  of  very  delicate  and 
rare  workmanship  the  customs  officials  detained  it,  de- 
manding a  payment  of  80  rupees1  duty.  Unfortunately 
the  further  fate  of  this  particular  hair  is  not  known  to 
me.  To  the  appearance  of  such  evidently  false  relics  the 
local  authorities  seem  quite  indifferent,  perhaps  from  the 
fear  of  disturbances  that  might  arise  amonor  the  fanatic 
people  if  they  were  declared  false. 

The  historian  quoted  above,  Ahmed  Effendi,  tells  how 
once  when  the  Caliph  Muhamed  I.  was  presented  with 
a  sandal  which  was  said  to  have  belonged  to  the  Prophet, 
he  reverently  kissed  it  and  raised  it  to  his  eyes,  ordered 
the  bringer  to  be  rewarded,  and  told  those  about  him 
that,  as  he  had  no  faith  personally  in  the  genuineness  of 


96          LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

the  sandal,  he  bought  it  only  to  prevent  its  getting  into 
the  hands  of  those  who  would  make  an  unprincipled  use 
of  it. 

I  must  state  that  none  of  these  relics  are  the  objects  of 
idolatry,  nor  are  miracles  attributed  to  them.  They  are 
only  objects  of  deep  veneration,  capable,  especially  in  the 
case  of  the  holy  standard,  of  raising  a  burst  of  wildest 
fanaticism  throughout  the  Mohammedan  world. 

Aside  from  these  relics  there  are  many  others  that  are 
with  more  or  less  justice  considered  to  have  belonged  to 
the  Prophet.  Among  them  are  the  armour  and  vessels 
kept  in  the  Seraglio  at  Constantinople,  and  the  ancient 
adornments  of  the  Kaaba.  These  last  were  brought  to 
Constantinople  in  1613  by  a  certain  Hussan  Bey  whom 
the  Sultan  Ahmed  I.  had  sent  to  make  repairs  about  the 
Kaaba.  He  brought  back  with  him  also  a  golden  plate 
with  pearls,  rubies  and  emeralds  which  had  adorned  the 
grave  of  the  Prophet  in  Medina.  In  the  place  of  this  plate 
diamonds  of  great  value  were  sent.  Then  there  are  minor 
relics,  carpet,  Sedjade,  of  the  Caliph  Abu-Bekr,  the 
arms  of  the  companions  of  the  Prophet,  and  the  turban 
of  the  Caliph  Omar.  In  olden  times  all  of  these  treas- 
ures were  kept  in  the  throne  room,  "takh  odassi,"  and 
finally  were  placed  in  a  special  mausoleum  known  as  the 
"Kherkai  Sherif  odassi,"  or  the  room  of  the  sacred 
mantle. 

In  speaking  of  relics,  notice  should  be  made  in  con- 
clusion of  the  sacred  footmark — "  Kademi  Sherif."  This 
stone,  with  a  human  footprint  upon  it,  which  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  impress  of  the  Prophet's  foot,  the  Sultan 
Mahmoud  I.  ordered  to  be  placed  in  the  mausoleum  over 
the  tomb  of  Eyoub  at  the  head  of  the  Golden  Horn. 


CHAPTER  VI 

PILGRIMAGES   AND   CARRYING  OF   BODIES   TO  THE 
HOLY  PLACES  OF  THE  SHIITES  IN  TURKEY 

Pilgrimages  Obligatory  to  Moslems — Places  of  Worship  Common  to 
both  Sunnites  and  Shiites; — Titles  of  Meshedi,  Kerbeli  and  Hadji 
— The  Mohammedan  Calendar — Lunar  and  Solar  Years — Names 
of  Lunar  Months  and  Their  Derivations — Formula  for  Transposing 
Moslem  and  Christian  Eras — Pilgrimages  of  Caucasians  and  Per- 
sians to  Holy  Places  found  in  Turkey — Unexpected  Discovery  made 
by  a  Physician — Contraband  Caravanserai — Suburb  of  Kerbela 
— Ancient  Canals — City  of  Kerbela,  Population  and  Professions — 
Torbas — Revenues — Treasures  of  Kerbela  Nedjef — Mudjtaheids — 
Occupation  of  Inhabitants — Cities  of  Cufa  and  Samara — Hadji 
Mirza  Hassan,  Most  Popular  Persian  Mudjtaheid — His  Part  in  the 
Abolishment  of  the  Tobacco  Monopoly  in  Persia. 

PILGRIMAGES  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  the  life  of 
Mohammedans  in  general,  but  particularly  so  among  the 
Shiite  sect.  Most  of  the  sacred  cities  of  the  Moslems  are 
to  be  found  in  Turkey,  and  in  this  way  the  Turks  hold  the 
keys  to  the  sacred  cities  of  three  great  religions — the 
Christian,  Jewish  and  Mohammedan. 

The  sacred  cities  of  the  Shiites  in  Turkish  Arabia  are 
the  following:  Kazmain,  Kerbela,  Nedjef  and  Samara. 
The  one  hundred  and  sixty  million  Mohammedans  are 
divided  into  two  great  sects,  the  Sunnites  and  Shiites.  The 
former  are  believers  in  the  "  Suni,"  or  the  traditional 
teachings  of  Mohammed,  to  which  they  attach  equal  im- 
portance with  the  Koran,  and  which  are  not  accepted  by 
the  Shiites.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Shiites  consider  Ali, 

97 


98  LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

the  Prophet's  son-in-law,  to  be  his  rightful  successor,  and 
the  first  caliphs  recognised  by  the  Sunnites,  Abu-Bekr, 
Osman  and  Omar,  to  be  usurpers. 

The  Shiites  hold  as  sacred  twelve  imams.  The  first  of 
the  line  was  Ali,  the  son-in-law  of  Mohammed,  who  was 
caliph  from  660  A.D.,  but  after  five  years  was  murdered 
in  the  city  Cufa  when  on  his  way  to  the  mosque  to  pray. 
He  is  buried  in  Nedjef,  in  the  mosque  of  Meshedi  Ali. 
His  son  and  successor,  Hassan,  was  poisoned  by  his  own 
wife,  instigated  by  the  rival  political  faction.  He  is 
buried  in  Medina.  His  brother,  Hussein,  the  third 
imam,  fell  in  an  unequal  fight,  together  with  all  his  sons 
excepting  one,  Imam  Ali,  known  as  Zein-el-Abdeen.  Tt 
is  the  tragic  death  of  Hussein  that  is  mourned  by  the 
Shiite  world  during  the  month  of  Muharram. 

His  son,  the  only  survivor,  Imam  Ali,  was  also  a  victim 
to  poisoning  and  was  buried  in  Medina.  The  same  fate 
fell  to  his  two  successors,  Imam  Mohammed,  known  as 
El  Bager,  btiried  in  Medina,  and  Imam  Jaffar,  called  El 
Sadiff,  whose  tomb  is  also  in  the  same  sacred  city. 

Imam  Musa,  or  El  Kadim,  is  buried  in  Kazrnain  and 
his  mosque  has  been  described  in  a  former  chapter.  The 
eighth  imam,  Ali-el-Riga,  died  a  natural  death  in  the  chief 
town  of  Khorasan,  Meshed,  in  Eastern  Persia,  where  he 
is  buried.  Imam  Mohammed-el-Djerad,  buried  in  Kaz- 
main,  was  the  ninth  imam.  His  successor,  Ali-el-Hadi, 
is  buried  in  Samara,  near  Bagdad.  Then  follows  Imam 
Hassan-el-Askeri,  buried  in  Kazmain,  and  finally 
Imam  Mehdi,  the  twelfth  in  number  and  buried  in  Sa- 
mara. He  is  called  the  imam  of  the  last  days,  as  the 
Shiites  believe  that  he  will  appear  together  with  Jesus 
Christ  at  the  day  of  judgment. 

From  the  time  of  Imam  Ali  began  the  split  in  the  Mos- 
lem world,  forming  the  Sunnite  sect  and  that  of  the 
Shiite,  the  followers  of  the  imams.  The  tragic  end  of 


PILGRIMAGES  AND  CARRYING  BODIES    99 

many  of  the  imams  increased  the  bitter  feeling  which  ex- 
ists down  to  the  present  day  and  which  is  fanned  by  the 
fact  of  so  many  of  the  sacred  places  of  the  Shiites  being 
found  in  Turkey,  a  Sunnite  empire.  The  geographical 
division  of  these  two  sects  may  be  given  in  general  terms 
as  follows: 

The  Shiites  form  the  majority  in  Persia,  the  Caucasus 
and  India,  while  the  Sunnites  predominate  in  Turkey,  the 
Crimea,  Central  Asia,  Western  China  and  Africa. 

Pilgrimages  are  obligatory  in  the  Moslem  religion, 
and  those  undertaking  them  are  sure  of  an  easy  entrance 
into  Paradise.  Mecca  and  Medina  are  the  chief  places 
for  both  sects  equally,  but  in  addition  the  Shiites  have 
the  following:  Meshed,  in  northeastern  Persia,  where 
Imam  Riza  is  buried,  and  the  cities  of  Kazmain, 
Samara,  Kerbela  and  Nedjef,  in  Turkish  Arabia.  Cer- 
tain places  of  pilgrimage  give  titles  to  those  visiting 
them.  These  in  order  of  consequence  and  rising  order  of 
importance  are  the  right  of  prefixing  to  the  name  of  one 
having  been  to  Meshed  "Meshedi";  "  Kerbeli "  to  one 
who  has  been  in  Kerbela;  and  finally  "Hadji,"  the  high- 
est reward  for  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  In  this  way  an 
Ahmed  may,  during  a  long  lifetime,  be  known  succes- 
sively as  Meshedi  Ahmed,  then  Kerbeli  Ahmed,  and 
finally,  to  the  end  of  his  days,  as  Hadji  Ahmed.  The 
last  title  is  the  most  respected,  and  when  the  caravan  of 
pilgrims  return  to  their  native  lands  the  inhabitants  of 
towns  and  villages  flock  out  to  kiss  the  hands,  and  even 
the  clothing  of  those  who  have  been  worthy  of  making 
the  Hadj  pilgrimage. 

The  Persian  and  Caucasian  pilgrims  go  on  horseback, 
in  caravans  of  from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  each, 
and  march  with  banners  flying  and  as  they  approach  vil- 
lages chanting  their  sacred  hymns.  Their  journey  is  from 
five  to  six  months'  duration  or  more.  Going  to  Kerbela 


ioo        LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

they  cross  the  Turkish  frontier  at  Khanakin,  and  avoid- 
ing Bagdad  go  direct  to  Kazmain  to  pray  at  the  tomb  of 
Imam  Musa  and  several  of  his  successors  buried  there. 
From  Kazmain  to  Kerbela,  fifty-seven  miles  from  Bag- 
dad, and  then  to  Nedjef,  forty-six  miles  farther  on.  From 
Nedjef  a  part  may  go  on  by  camel  through  the  desert  to 
Mecca.  Others  who  have  not  the  means  return  home  as 
Kerbelis. 

The  long  journey  between  Nedjef  and  Mecca  is  one 
of  great  fatigue  and  hardships  and  as  such  is  considered 
the  most  pleasing  to  God,  while  those  who  fall  by  the 
way,  as  so  many  do  in  each  caravan,  are  blessed  beyond 
their  fellows,  as  for  them  the  door  of  Paradise  stands  more 
than  ajar.  This  hope  makes  the  pilgrim  face  the  terrors 
of  this  march  with  a  light  heart  in  spite  of  epidemics, 
fatigues,  and  other  dangers  of  the  desert  route.  Many 
feeling  that  the  end  of  their  days  is  drawing  near  move 
to  Kazmain,  Kerbela,  Nedjef,  Meshed  and  Mecca,  that 
the  angel  of  death  may  find  them  already  on  sacred  soil. 

Pilgrimages  are  undertaken  in  stated  months  of  the 
Mohammedan  lunar  year;  such  months  are  Redjeb,  Sha- 
ban,  Ramadan,  Zelhadjie,  Muharram  and  Safar. 

When  the  caravans  reach  Turkish  Arabia  they  gener- 
ally march  at  night  to  avoid  the  heat  of  day,  and  during 
our  wanderings  in  the  desert  we  would  often  be  roused 
out  of  a  sleep  at  night  by  the  dong,  dong  of  the  camel 
bells  and  the  weird  chanting  of  the  pilgrims  that  rang 
out  afar  in  the  deathlike  stillness  of  the  desert,  and  we 
knew  it  was  a  caravan  of  pilgrims  passing  our  camp. 

But  aside  from  the  necessity  of  performing  these  pil- 
grimages, the  Shiites  have  another  belief,  based  on  the 
scholastic  interpretation  of  their  sacred  writings.  To  ob- 
tain that  Paradise  which  they  hold  not  in  a  spiritual, 
but  material  sense,  it  is  sufficient  if  the  body  of  one  who 
during  his  lifetime  has  not  been  able  to  make  the  pilgrim- 


BAGDAD  TYPE 


PILGRIMAGES  AND  CARRYING  BODIES-    101 

age,  be  carried  for  burial  in  sacred  soil.  From  this  arises 
the  most  pernicious  custom  of  taking  bodies  for  burial 
to  Meshed,  Kerbela  or  Mecca,  according  to  the  means 
of  the  individual.  During  the  cool  months,  particularly, 
one  may  meet  long  caravans  going  to  Kerbela,  the  animals 
laden  with  long  narrow  boxes,  four  to  each  horse.  The 
usual  rule  is  to  exhume  the  bodies  for  transport  five  to 
six  years  after  death,  but  very  frequently  this  rule  is  not 
carried  out,  and  the  bodies  are  taken  but  a  short  time 
after  death,  of  again  many  years  later.  Sometimes  a 
grandson  will  take  the  bones  of  his  father  and  grand- 
father at  the  same  time.  The  Turkish  Government  has 
laid  customs  duties  on  these  bodies  and  the  revenue  thus 
obtained  is  considerable,  for  as  many  as  ten  thousand  and 
upwards  are  brought  into  Turkey  annually.  The  Per- 
sians are  so  accustomed  to  this  strange  tariff  law  that  they 
look  upon  it  as  a  matter  of  course. 

To  illustrate  the  peculiar  morals  of  the  rite  I  will  cite 
an  incident  told  me  by  a  European  physician  who  had 
been  sent  to  study  the  pilgrimage  routes  from  a  sanitary 
point  of  view.  Entering  Persia  by  Tabriz  he  engaged 
two  highly  recommended  servants,  Persians,  and  started 
down  by  the  usual  caravan  route  into  Turkey.  At  Khan- 
akin,  on  the  frontier,  where  there  is  a  sanitary  post,  the 
usual  customs  examination  took  place  in  the  presence  of 
the  local  .sanitary  physicians.  While  the  two  colleagues, 
Turkish  and  European,  exchanged  views  unanimously 
denouncing  the  dangerous  practice  of  carrying  so  many 
bodies  through  the  populated  countries,  the  customs  of- 
ficials were  busy  with  the  doctor's  baggage.  With  un- 
moved faces  they  began  to  take  from  the  various  places 
human  bones  in  view  of  determining  how  many  bodies 
were  brought.  The  doctor  was  speechless  with  amaze- 
ment and  horror  as  he  saw  bone  after  bone  drawn  out, 
not  only  from  his  valises,  but  from  the  bags  containing 


i02         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

his  provisions  for  the  road — flour,  rice,  et  cetera — His 
servants  coolly  greeting  each  new  discovery  with  "  That's 
a  part  of  my  father,"  or  grandmother,  as  the  case  might 
be.  It  seems  that  the  men  had  profited  by  what  they  con- 
sidered a  good  opportunity  of  smuggling  the  bones  of 
some  of  their  relatives  across  the  frontier,  as  they  did 
not  expect  the  physician's  belongings  would  be  subjected 
to  examination. 

In  passing  it  may  be  of  interest  to  note  that  the  smug- 
glers of  saffron  take  advantage  of  this  Shiite  custom. 
Saffron  is  grown  in  the  district  of  Kaen  and  a  few  other 
places  in  Persia  and  the  Caucasus.  In  Kaen  saffron  has 
a  standard  value  and  is  often  used  as  a  means  of  exchange 
instead  of  money.  Being  extremely  light  it  is  priced  at 
a  little  less  than  its  weight  in  gold  and  is  subject  to  a  very 
heavy  entrance  duty  in  Turkey.  To  avoid  this  I  have 
known  of  cases  where  it  was  smuggled  through  the  cus- 
toms houses  in  the  long  yellow  bones  of  bodies  brought 
for  burial!  This  process  was  continued  until  the  sharp- 
eyed  customs  officials  discerned  this  novel  form  of  con- 
traband. 

From  Bagdad  to  Kerbela  caravanserais  are  built  in 
the  desert  for  the  convenience  of  pilgrims.  Everywhere 
in  Persia  and  Turkey  these  caravanserais  are  built  on 
one  and  the  same  general  plan.  They  present  a  huge, 
square  building.  A  large  gateway  leads  into  a  spacious 
court  where  the  camels  and  horses  are  unloaded.  Around 
this  court  are  buildings,  a  part  of  which  serve  as  stables, 
and  a  part,  the  latter  generally  two-storied,  as  rooms  for 
travellers.  These  are  small,  cell-like  apartments,  each 
with  door  and  window  opening  onto  the  court,  and  are 
occupied  by  from  three  to  four  persons,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  caravanserai.  Women  are  roomed  separately. 
Some  of  these  caravanserais  have  as  many  as  eighty 
rooms,  and  a  correspondingly  large  accommodation  for 
horses.  These  caravanserais  are  generally  hired  out  to 


PILGRIMAGES  AND  CARRYING  BODIES     103 

some  one  who  makes  his  profit  on  the  food  and  fodder  he 
sells,  as  the  rooms  are  nominally  free,  the  traveller  on 
leaving  being  supposed  to  give  a  fee  according  to  his 
means.  Caravans  carrying  bodies  stop  at  these  caravan- 
serais also,  the  coffins  being  piled  up  in  the  court  as  the 
horses  are  unloaded  just  as  if  they  were  bales  of  mer- 
chandise. Once  in  going  to  Kerbela  I  had  just  stopped 
in  a  caravanserai,  tired  with  a  long  march,  and  had  made 
myself  comfortable  for  a  night's  rest,  when  at  dusk  one 
of  these  caravans  came  in.  The  result  was  that  in  spite 
of  our  fatigue  we  had  to  leave,  as  the  stench  at  such  close 
quarters  was  intolerable. 

Kerbela  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the  remains  of 
ancient  irrigating  canals,  serving  now  only  as  receptacles 
for  stagnant  rain  water  that  form  marshes,  a  hotbed  of 
epidemic-breeding  miasms.  The  town  of  Kerbela  is  on 
the  right  side  of  the  Euphrates,  about  eighteen  miles  from 
the  river  and  some  sixty  from  Bagdad.  Of  the  sixty- five 
thousand  inhabitants  fully  fifty-four  thousand  are  Shiites. 
The  city  itself  is  on  the  site  where  Hussein  fell,  which 
gives  to  this  town  and  its  surroundings  special  sanctity 
in  the  eyes  of  the  Shiites.  This  explains  the  fact  that  up 
to  the  nineteenth  century  the  Shiites,  as  represented  by 
the  Persians,  made  every  attempt  to  get  this,  to  them,  holy 
place  out  of  the  hands  of  their  religious  enemies,  the 
Turks.  Profiting  by  the  strength  and  independence  of 
their  position  the  Persian  Shiites  have  frequently  risen 
and  tried  to  throw  off  the  hated  Turkish  yoke.  The  last 
such  rebellion  was  crushed  by  Sultan  Abdul  Medjed  in 
1842.  From  this  date  the  discontent  of  the  Shiites  has 
expressed  itself  only  in  disorders  that  have  broken  out 
from  time  to  time  without  having,  however,  any  serious 
consequences. 

Irrigation  is  carried  on  by  means  of  water  obtaine'd  in 
the  most  primitive  way  from  wells,  but  in  spite  of  this 
difficulty  palm  groves  abound,  and  the  city  itself  is  sur- 


104        LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

rounded  by  a  belt  of  gardens.  The  inhabitants  are  almost 
entirely  Persian  and  Indian  Shiites,  who  have  gathered 
here,  drawn  partly  by  religious  sentiment,  and  partly  by 
commerce,  which  is  entirely  in  their  hands.  The  city 
grows  constantly,  and  at  present  the  population  is  esti- 
mated at  eight  thousand  houses,  or  about  forty-five  thou- 
sand souls.  During  the  pilgrim  season  the  city  is  not  able 
to  house  the  multitudes;  many  of  the  pilgrims  therefore 
live  in  their  camps.  From  money  contributed  by  the 
pilgrims  schools  are  supported,  which  form  the  seat  of 
theological  learning.  Of  these  schools  are  three  grades, 
lower,  middle  and  high.  In  Kerbela  live  sayids,  the 
highest  ecclesiastics,  who  consider  themselves  to  be  direct 
descendants  of  Mohammed  and  whose  outward  mark  is 
the  green  turban  and  belt  of  the  same  colour. 

Since  Kerbela  serves  as  one  of  the  great  burying  places 
of  the  bodies  brought  to  Turkey,  certain  professions  con- 
nected with  it  flourish — as  grave-diggers,  stone-cutters 
and  men  who  prepare  little  mud  or  square  earthen  tablets 
called  torbas.  This  last  profession  needs  a  few  words 
of  explanation.  While  performing  their  devotions  the 
Shiites  generally  use  these  torbas  made  from  the  sacred 
earth  of  Kerbela,  Nedjef  or  Mecca,  and  when,  as  is  pre- 
scribed, they  bend  forward  they  touch  their  foreheads  to 
these  tablets  instead  of  to  the  ground,  so  that  they  can 
always  feel  as  if  they  were  actually  praying  on  sacred 
soil.  Every  pilgrim  takes  not  only  one  or  more  of  these 
torbas  for  his  own  use,  but  carries  home  a  good  number 
to  give  as  most  highly  prized  relics  to  his  home  friends. 
In  this  way  the  Kerbela  merchants  dispose  of  an  enormous 
number  yearly.  The  inhabitants  of  Kerbela  and  Nedjef, 
as  in  fact  of  every  sacred  city,  of  whatever  sect  or  religion, 
get  their  living  from  the  pilgrims,  whom  they  fleece  in 
a  most  heartless  manner. 

But  aside  from  these  gains,  contributions  flow  into 


PILGRIMAGES  AND  CARRYING  BODIES     105 

Kerbela  from  all  over  the  Shiite  world.  These  offerings 
are  of  two  kinds:  in  the  form  of  gold  and  silver  and  pre- 
cious stones,  or  as  real  estate  given  to  one  or  another 
mosque,^  the  revenue  from  which  goes  to  the  support  of 
schools,  or  to  other  benevolent  objects.  The  most  gener- 
ous gifts  come  from  India.  For  instance,  the  monthly 
contribution  for  the  support  of  poor  sayids  amounts 
to  $12,000.  Land  belonging  to  these  mosques  is  to  be 
found  not  only  in  Turkey  but  all  over  Persia,  India  and 
China.  Special  buildings  are  put  up  for  storing  the  rich 
gifts  brought  to  the  shrines.  These  are  under  the  special 
guardianship  of  an  officer  known  as  the  kelled-dar,  or 
key  keeper,  who  generally  amasses  a  very  considerable 
fortune.  The  property  of  some  kelled-dars  has  been  es- 
timated as  high  as  $2,500,000.  It  is  true  that  each  pil- 
grim is  supposed  to  give  the  kelled-dar  something,  but 
this  is  not  obligatory,  nor  can  it  be  the  only  source  of  such 
riches. 

Since  the  visit  of  Naser-ed-Deen  in  the  seventies  of  the 
nineteenth  century  the  kelled-dars  have  been  obliged  to 
inscribe  in  a  special  book  all  gifts  exceeding  one  hundred 
and  fifty  dollars ;  up  to  that  time  even  this  was  not  done. 
To  form  some  idea  of  the  vastness  of  these  contributions 
it  is  enough  to  mention  one  fact.  During  the  visit  of 
Naser-ed-Deen  Shah  he  obtained  permission  of  the  then 
reigning  sultan,  Abdul  Aziz,  to  open  the  vaults  in  which 
the  treasures  were  stored.  From  these  were  taken  out 
seventy-seven  tons  weight  of  valuable  ornaments,  vessels, 
etc.,  that  were  sold,  but  the  most  rare  and  precious  articles 
were  kept,  as  a  lamp  made  from  one  enormous  emerald, 
a  carpet  of  pearls,  golden  candlesticks  set  with  rubies, 
ancient  armour  encrusted  with  precious  stones,  the  gifts 
pf  sultans  and  Indian  Nabobs.  There  were  many  other 
articles  of  great  value,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
a  dagger  priced  at  twenty  thousand  Turkish  pounds. 


io6         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

The  treasures  of  the  shrines  of  Kerbela  and  Nedjef 
have  been  estimated  at  thirty  million  Turkish  pounds, 
not  including  capital  and  real  estate  that  are  to  be  found 
scattered  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  the  income  of 
which  goes,  as  has  been  said,  to  the  support  of  schools 
and  other  benevolent  objects. 

As  a  greater  part  of  these  offerings  come  from  India, 
the  English  consul  at  Bagdad  has  succeeded  in  getting 
the  right,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  the  control  over  the  ex- 
penditure of  these  sums.  The  chief  control  is,  however, 
in  the  hands  of  Mudjtaheids,  who  play  so  important  a 
role  in  the  life  of  the  Shiites.  The  Sunnites  do  not  accept 
them,  but  the  most  popular  of  the  Persian  Mudjtaheids 
have  always  lived  in  Turkey,  in  the  towns  of  Kerbela, 
Nedjef,  Kazmain  and  Samara.  Living  thus  abroad  and 
in  a  foreign  and  to  them  religiously  opposed  country  has 
never  prevented  these  ecclesiastics  from  exerting  a  power- 
ful influence  upon  their  co-religionists  in  Persia  and  else- 
where. 

The  chief  mosque  of  Kerbela  is  where  Imam  Hussein 
is  buried,  the  dome  and  six  minarets  of  which  are  covered 
with  gold-leaf  valued  at  100,000  Turkish  pounds.  Inside 
of  this  mosque  there  is  a  separate  division  for  Sunnites, 
who,  however,  have  their  own  mosque  as  well. 

The  second  mosque  of  the  city  is  over  the  grave  of 
Imam  Abbas,  which,  though  fine,  is  in  many  ways  inferior 
to  the  first.  With  the  exception  of  these  two  mosques 
there  is  nothing  worthy  of  interest  in  the  city,  unless  it  be 
the  cemetery,  the  vastness  of  which  is  striking.  In  fact  the 
entire  city  and  its  immediate  surroundings  may  be  counted 
as  one  huge  burying  ground.  Fulfilling  the  rites  pre- 
scribed to  the  pilgrims  in  Kerbela,  they  go  on  to  Nedjef, 
lying  fifty  miles  to  the  south  on  the  edge  of  the  Syrian 
desert  called  the  Shamieh. 

Nedjef  is  the  administrative  centre  of  the  province  of 


PILGRIMAGES  AND  CARRYING  BODIES     107 

the  same  name,  with  a  population  of  ten  thousand,  of 
which  nine  thousand  three  hundred  are  Shiites  and  only 
seven  hundred  Sunnites,  and  they  belong  for  the  most 
part  to  the  Turkish  administration.  This  is  explained 
by  the  reluctance  of  the  Shiites  to  having  their  religious 
enemies,  the  Sunnites,  living  in  their  most  sacred  cities. 
The  city  of  Nedjef  itself  is  on  a  lake  called  the  Sea  of 
Nedjef,  the  waters  of  which  are  so  salty  that  the  inhabi- 
tants are  obliged  to  get  their  drinking  water  from  the 
city  of  Cufa,  three  miles  distant  on  the  old  Hindieh  canal. 
This  state  of  things  continued  until  a  lady  pilgrim  from 
India  took  pity  on  the  inhabitants  of  the  sacred  city  and 
at  an  expense  of  20,000  Turkish  pounds  brought  water 
from  the  Hindieh  canal  into  the  city  of  Nedjef. 

The  mosque  where  lies  Ali  is  the  only  remarkable 
building,  and  by  its  size  and  commanding  position  is  ex- 
ceedingly imposing.  Its  dome  and  four  minarets  are  cov- 
ered with  pure  gold,  the  gift  of  Nadir  Shah,  that  cost  him 
more  than  one  and  a  half  million  dollars.  Though  the  city 
is  surrounded  by  walls  that  conceal  the  building  inside, 
the  gold-covered  domes  and  minarets  tower  above  them 
and  are  to  be  seen  at  a  great  distance  by  the  approaching 
caravan  of  pilgrims,  who  are  filled  with  reverent  awe  at 
the  sight.  This  city,  too,  is  one  vast  burying  ground  that 
overflows  beyond  the  walls. 

Cufa,  or  Kufa,  the  city  once  known  in  Mohammedan 
history,  was  founded  in  639  A.D.  It  was  formerly  the 
centre  of  Moslem  culture,  the  home  of  artists  and  writers. 
Here  originated  the  famous  Cufic  characters  seen  and 
admired  on  so  many  ancient  inscriptions.  At  the  present 
time  Cufa  is  a  miserable  little  hamlet  avoided  by  pilgrims 
as  the  cursed  spot  where  Ali  fell. 

Finally  there  is  to  be  mentioned  Samara,  above  Bagdad, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tigris.  This,  too,  is  a  small  town 
having  a  population  of  not  more  than  two  thousand  and 


io8         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

seventy-five  souls,  and  attracts  pilgrims  only  as  here  is  to 
be  found  the  tomb  of  Imam  Mehdi,  the  last  imam,  who 
is  to  come  at  the  end  of  the  world.  Here,  too,  bodies  are 
brought  for  burial. 

All  of  these  places  represent  in  fact  burying  grounds, 
where  the  living  are  in  constant  contact  with  the  dead, 
where  the  houses  are  built  over  graves  and  are  not  in- 
frequently parts  of  sepulchres  where  the  very  soil  is 
formed  of  decayed  human  bodies.  All  of  these  conditions 
make  it  easy  to  understand  that  the  plague  and  cholera 
often  break  out  first  in  one  and  then  another  oart  of  Turk- 
ish Arabia. 

The  Samara  mosque  is  much  inferior  in  richness  to 
that  of  Kerbela  and  Nedjef,  but  notwithstanding  this  fact 
when  we  were  in  Bagdad  all  pilgrims  passing  that  way 
visited  Samara.  They  were  not  attracted  there  so  much 
by  desire  to  worship  at  the  shrine  as  to  see  the  most  popu- 
lar Mudjtaheid,  Hadji  Mirza  Hassan  Shirazi,  so  called 
as  he  was  born  in  Shiraz,  though  then  living  in  Samara. 
This  Mudjtaheid  was  a  most  striking  personality,  that 
will  go  down  as  a  marked  figure  in  Persian  history,  as 
being  the  most  popular  and  powerful  leader  that  the 
Shiite  world  ever  possessed. 

I  knew  him  when  he  was  over  seventy  years  of  age, 
when  his  feeble  steps  were  obliged  to  be  supported  as  he 
went  daily  to  the  mosque,  where  much  of  his  time  was 
spent.  His  devotees  flocked  from  all  points  of  the  Moslem 
world — Russia,  Persia,  India  and  Bokhara.  There  were 
days  when  many  thousands  lined  the  streets  through 
which  he  passed  on  his  way  to  the  mosque,  and  those  who 
succeeded  in  kissing  his  hand  considered  themselves  as 
blessed — the  majority  when  they  had  failed  to  even  touch 
his  garments  were  content  to  kiss  the  threshold  of  the 
mosque  over  which  he  had  passed. 

Hadji  Mirza  Hassan  was  a  man  not  of  this  world.    Re- 


w 
D 
Ot 


ceiving  thousands  of  dollars  in  voluntary  offerings,  he 
gave  all  to  the  poor,  living  in  the  most  simple  manner, 
and  no  one  ever  went  away  from  him  without  receiving 
counsel  and  material  aid.  While  being  a  zealous  Mo- 
hammedan and  the  best  theologian  of  his  time,  he  was  no 
fanatic,  and  had  a  broad  tolerance  of  other  faiths.  At  one 
time  I  had  a  correspondence  with  him  upon  a  point  in- 
teresting us  both.  As  I  was  a  Christian,  he  could  not 
address  me  in  the  terms  usually  employed  in  Mohamme- 
dan correspondence,  but  his  letters  to  me  always  began 
with  the  words,  "  Peace  be  upon  all  those  who  follow  in 
the  paths  of  God." 

These  letters  were  always  modest,  and  the  style  clear 
and  simple,  free  from  any  of  the  flowery  extravagance  of 
phraseology  so  much  adopted  by  Oriental  writers. 

Aside  from  his  sermons  and  teaching  in  the  mosque  he 
carried  on  an  enormous  correspondence  with  his  col- 
leagues in  Persia,  who  recognised  him  as  an  authority  to 
whom  they  turned  in  all  doubtful  questions  in  Moham- 
medan justice,  and  theological  controversies.  Although 
being  of  equal  clerical  rank,  every  Mudjtaheid  in  Persia 
recognised  Hadji  Mirza  Hassan's  superiority,  based  on 
nothing  other  than  his  personality — his  competence  in 
judging  all  judicial  and  religious  points,  his  perfect  fair- 
ness and  impartiality,  and  his  unapproachable  private  life. 
It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  while  living  in  Turkey  he 
guided  all  the  Mudjtaheids  of  Persia,  who  bowed  to  his 
decision  without  question. 

Placing  above  all  else  the  interest  of  his  colleagues  in 
Persia  he  many  times  fearlessly  stood  forth  in  their  de- 
fence, unhesitatingly  speaking  the  truth  to  the  shah  him- 
self, and  pointing  out  his  mistakes.  His  influence  upon  the 
inhabitants  of  Persia  was  very  strikingly  shown  in  connec- 
tion with  the  tobacco  monopoly,  when  every  one  in  Per- 
sia at  his  command  refrained  from  smoking  for  seven 


i  io        LIFE   IN  THE  MOSLEM  EAST 

weeks.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  nowhere  is  smoking  more  uni- 
versal than  in  Persia,  where,  without  exception,  all  men 
and  women  are  given  to  the  habit.  Two  kinds  of  tobacco 
are  cultivated  in  Persia,  the  ordinary  sorts  used  for  cig- 
arettes and  a  particular  kind  called  tambacu,  and  used 
only  in  the  kalian,  or  water  pipe.  This  latter  is  famous 
throughout  the  Mohammedan  world,  and  is  one  of  Per- 
sia's chief  articles  of  export.  The  kalian  plays  an  impor- 
tant role  in  Persian  life.  In  making  a  call  a  Persian  takes, 
or  more  correctly  has  carried  after  him,  his  pipe,  and  no 
call,  friendly  or  on  business,  no  official  or  social  gather- 
ing, passes  without  the  ever-present  kalian.  This  is  true  of 
all  classes  of  society.  During  Ramadan,  the  month  of 
fasting,  when  from  sunrise  to  sunset  nothing  can  pass  the 
lips  of  the  faithful,  the  Persian  invariably  breaks  his  fast 
with  a  puff  at  the  kalian.  On  the  march  every  rich  per- 
son has  a  special  man  mounted  on  a  horse  carrying  the 
kalian  with  its  appendages,  water  filled  from  the  wayside 
reservoirs,  and  live  coals  hanging  from  the  saddle  in  wire 
baskets,  ready  at  any  moment  for  lighting  the  pipe.  In 
a  word,  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  of  a  Persian,  rich  or 
poor,  without  his  kalian. 

And  suddenly  in  March,  1890,  a  treaty  was  signed  by 
the  Persian  Government  giving  the  tobacco  and  tambacu 
to  a  foreign  monopoly.  When  the  first  rumour  of  this 
reached  the  people  there  was  a  repressed  wave  of  dis- 
content. They  realised  that  the  effect  of  the  monopoly 
upon  the  agricultural  class  would  be  disastrous,  while  at 
the  same  time  the  price  of  tobacco,  which  the  Persian  re- 
gards as  a  product  of  the  first  importance,  would  be  raised. 
In  March  of  the  following  year,  1891,  Persia  was  in- 
vaded by  a  perfect  army  of  employees  of  the  new  mo- 
nopoly who  were  placed  in  various  cities  to  establish  the 
monopoly  and  control  the  sale  of  tobacco.  The  arrival 
of  the  foreigners  inflamed  the  already  prevailing  dis- 


PILGRIMAGES  AND  CARRYING  BODIES     in 

content.  At  first  anonymous  letters  were  addressed  to  the 
shah  and  members  of  his  council,  the  tone  of  which  be- 
came more  and  more  menacing  as  time  went  on.  These 
letters  pointed  out  to  the  government,  and  not  without 
reason,  that  they  were  selling  the  interests  of  their  coun- 
try. In  newspapers  published  in  Constantinople  and 
Egypt  began  to  appear  cutting  articles  directed  against 
the  monopoly.  In  spite  of  attempts  made  in  the  post  to 
confiscate  such  papers  they  filtered  into  the  country. 
Many  arrests  were  made,  but  without  decreasing  the 
feeling  that  grew  and  grew  in  tenseness.  Then  the 
clergy  appeared  upon  the  scene,  taking  on  themselves  the 
defence  of  the  people's  interest.  Under  the  influence  of 
the  agitation  aroused  by  them,  disorders  broke  out  in 
Shiraz  which  were  crushed  by  armed  force.  Tabriz  fol- 
lowed the  example  of  Shiraz,  where  the  disturbance  as- 
sumed more  serious  proportions,  and  the  popular  local 
Mudjtaheid,  Hadji  Mirza  Djavad  Aga,  in  his  sermons 
began  to  denounce  the  action  of  the  government  in  ceding 
the  interest  of  Persia  to  foreigners.  The  excited  popu- 
lace mobbed  the  house  of  the  agent  of  the  company,  and 
the  Christian  colony  began  to  be  in  danger.  The  up- 
rising became  so  great  that  it  was  decided  to  make  an  ex- 
ception in  fovour  of  the  province  of  Azerbaijan,  exempt- 
ing it  from  having  a  monopoly  instituted  there.  But 
this  did  not  help  matters,  as  the  disorders  had  already 
spread  into  the  provinces  of  Mazanderan  and  Kho- 
rasan. 

Finally,  November  21,  1891,  the  Samara  Mudjtaheid, 
Hadji  Mirza  Hassan,  interfered,  sending  by  telegraph  his 
instructions  to  all  parts  of  Persia,  ordering  everyone  to  re- 
frain from  smoking  until  the  monopoly  should  be  entirely 
abolished  throughout  the  land.  And  all  Persia,  not  ex- 
cluding the  army  and  the  shah's  own  harem,  stopped 
smoking.  The  Mudjtaheid  based  his  order  on  the  fact 


112         LIFE   IN   THE    MOSLEM  EAST 

that  all  monopolies  are  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the  teach- 
ings of  the  Koran  and  therefore  the  products  of  monop- 
olies must  be  impure,  and  as  such  forbidden. 

From  this  moment  the  condition  of  affairs  became  dan- 
gerous. Persia  was  threatened  with  a  revolution.  In 
December  the  government  made  a  fresh  concession  to  the 
effect  that  the  monopoly  would  be  confined  to  the  ex- 
ported article  and  not  touch  the  internal  sales  of  tobacco. 
But  this  half  measure  was  not  accepted.  Uprisings  con- 
tinued and  on  the  23d  of  December  in  Teheran  itself  the 
shah's  palace  was  surrounded,  the  mob  being  dispersed 
only  by  force  of  arms,  during  which  several  were  killed 
and  wounded.  A  revolution  was  imminent.  A  special 
council  of  the  ministers  was  assembled,  in  which  it  was 
decided  to  appeal  to  the  Mudjtaheids  for  help  in  quieting 
the  country.  The  latter  absolutely  refused  to  help  the 
government.  Discontent  spread  into  the  palace  and  even 
to  the  shah's  own  harem.  Meeting  with  no  backing  from 
any  quarter,  the  government  was  finally  obliged  to  give 
in,  and  in  the  beginning  of  June,  1892,  in  every  town  of 
Persia  proclamations  were  issued  announcing  the  abso- 
lute and  unconditional  abolishment  of  the  monopoly. 
Definite  information  to  the  same  effect  was  sent  to  the 
Samara  Mudjtaheid.  Only  when  entirely  convinced  of 
the  sincerity  of  these  promises,  did  Hadji  Mirza  Hassan 
remove  his  ban  and  give  permission  to  smoke,  which  was 
received  with  great  joy  by  all  Persia  after  seven  weeks' 
abstinence.  The  government,  too,  breathed  freely  after 
the  severe  strain  of  so  many  months,  that  had  been  caused 
by  their  false  step  and  which  had  also  involved  them  in 
grave  financial  losses.  They  were  obliged  to  pay  an  in- 
demnity of  the  very  considerable  amount  of  500,000  Eng- 
lish pounds  to  the  foreign  monopoly,  that  had,  however, 
expended  but  194,000  pounds,  of  which  139,000  had  gone 
as  "  presents." 


ARABIA,  NEJD  AND  THE  WAHABEES 

The  Camel  and  its  Significance  in  the  Life  of  the  Bedouin — Arabia 
Geographically — Bible  Life  as  seen  at  the  Present  Time — Limits  of 
Territory  occupied  by  Nomadic  Arabs — Hadramuth — The  Great 
Desert — Oman,  Al  Hassa,  Nejd  and  the  Nefuds — Cause  of  Isola- 
tion of  Nejd — Character  of  Nefuds— Red  Locusts  and  Samkh  as 
Principal  Diet  of  the  Bedouin  and  His  Horse — Travellers  who  have 
visited  Nejd — Wahabees  and  Wahabeeism — The  Wahabee  Kingdom 
— Occupation  of  the  Hedjaz,  Mecca,  and  Medina  by  Wahabees — 
Pillaging  the  Kerbela  Mosque — Raids  on  Damascus — Expedition  of 
Mehmed  All  Pasha  and  Ibrahim  Pasha — Occupation  of  Nejd  by 
Egyptian  Forces — Fall  of  Wahabeeism — Struggle  for  Supremacy — 
Ibn-al-Rashid — His  Popularity — Hiayil — Abuse  of  Pilgrims — Cli- 
mate of  Nejd — Slavery — Nejd  the  Cradle  of  the  Arabs — Mesopota- 
mia— El  Jezira — El  Irak — Shamiya — Suffering  in  Years  of  Drought 
— Importance  of  the  Camel  in  the  Bedouin's  Life — Pacing  Camels 
— One-Humped  and  Two-Humped  Camels — Examples  of  Endurance 
— Shortcomings  of  Camels — Examples  of  Camels'  Vengeance. 

To  form  a  correct  estimate  of  Bedouins,  it  is  not  enough 
to  have  an  acquaintance  with  the  Arabs  in  Mesopotamia 
nor  those  migrating  in  the  desert  lying  west  of  the  Eu- 
phrates. It  is  necessary  to  touch  upon  that  part  of  the 
Asiatic  continent  included  between  the  Red  Sea  to  the 
west,  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  south,  the  Persian  Gulf  to 
the  south  and  southeast,  and  the  Tigris  River  up  as  far 
as  its  source  to  the  east  and  north. 

All  this  huge  tract  is  inhabited  by  Arabs,  a  people 
of  Semitic  race,  once  playing  a  brilliant  role  in  history, 
but  now  represented  by  only  half -savage,  nomadic  people 

"3 


ii4         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

preserving  to  the  present  day  many  of  the  customs  and 
characteristics  of  the  time  of  Abraham,  who  is  held  by 
them  to  be  the  founder  of  their  race.  To  understand  the 
Bible  pictures  it  is  enough  to  travel  in  Arabia,  and  there 
we  have  before  us  the  living  pictures  in  brightest  colours 
of  the  stories  told  in  that  great  book.  How  many  times 
when  passing  Arab  camps,  or  at  the  wells  where  the 
flocks  and  herds  were  being  watered,  did  we  witness  the 
scenes  that  are  given  with  such  epic  simplicity  in  the 
Bible!  The  same  "  black  tents  of  Kedar,"  the  same  types, 
and  probably  the  same  dress  as  then.  Wonderfully  little 
has  changed  in  the  life  of  these  people.  And  how  absurd 
to  us  then  seem  the  Bible  pictures  we  are  accustomed  to 
see  from  childhood;  for  instance,  Abraham  seated  on  a 
bench  or  chair  in  front  of  his  house,  receiving  the  three 
strangers,  and  Sarah  listening  behind  a  door! 

The  nomadic  Arabs  occupy  a  large  area  of  the  Arabian 
peninsula  and  a  portion  of  the  continent  of  Asia  running 
up  to  the  Iran  plateau.  The  boundary  of  their  country 
may  be  roughly  traced  as  follows :  To  the  west,  towards 
the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
Turkish  provinces  of  the  Hedjaz  and  the  Yemen. 
Farther  to  the  south  of  Aden,  touching  the  Indian  Ocean, 
is  a  place  known  as  Hadramuth,  which  merges  into  deserts 
that  are  yet  unexplored,  and  that  are  known  to  the  Arabs 
as  "Al  Dahma,"  and  which  occupy  almost  one-third  of 
the  Arabian  peninsula.  Farther,  beyond  the  Hadramuth 
along  the  shores  washed  by  the  Indian  Ocean  and  Persian 
Gulf,  from  Merbaga  to  the  peninsula  of  Katara,  are  the 
domains  of  the  sultan,  or  imam,  of  Oman.  Then  follows 
another  narrow  strip  on  the  sea  front,  the  Turkish  prov- 
ince of  Al-Hassa,  a  flowering  oasis  occupied  by  the 
Turks  only  since  1870.  It  is  therefore  clear  that  the 
tract  inhabited  by  the  Arabs  touches  on  its  western 
frontier  the  Turkish  provinces  of  the  Hedjaz  and  the 


ARABIA,  NEJD  AND  THE  WAHABEES     115 

Yemen;  on  the  south  and  southeast  the  Hadramuth,  the 
country  of  the  Sultan  of  Oman,  and  from  the  east  Al- 
Hassa.    Farther  north  than  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  fron- 
tier can  be  said  in  general  to  be  the  Shaat-el-Arab,  and 
then  the  Iran  plateau,  to  the  mountains  of  Tekrit,  from 
where  it  follows  the  Tigris  river  almost  to  its  source,  on 
the   north.     Finally   Syria   and   Palestine   on   the   west 
towards  the  Mediterranean  Sea.     Along  the  Red  Sea, 
Indian  Ocean  and  Persian  Gulf  run  a  chain  of  mountains 
rising  in  places  to  several  thousand  feet,  and  these  shut 
off  the  Arabian  peninsula  proper  from  the  sea.     Inside 
of  the  barrier  formed  by  the  mountains  and  then  the  des- 
ert, is  a  mountainous  plateau  known  as  Nejd  or  "  high 
lands,"  the  cradle  of  the  Arab  race.    Nejd  is  surrounded 
on  all    sides    by  the  Nefuds,  arms  of  the  great  desert 
"  Dahna,"  running  like  gigantic  fingers  around  Nejd. 
Nejd  is  thus  guarded,  as  the  waterless  Nefuds  make  ac- 
cess to  it  so  difficult  as  to  explain  the  reason  of  this  spot 
being  so  little  known.     The  soil  of  the  Nefuds  is  fine  red 
sand,  forming  wave-like  undulations  that  follow  the  di- 
rection of  the  prevailing  winds.     The  huge  petrified  bil- 
lows, as  it  were,  sometimes  have  a  height  of  350   feet. 
This  place  reminds  one  of  the  sand  dunes  of  Kara-Kum 
in  Central  Asia  between  the  Amu-Dara  and  Bokhara, 
now  crossed  by  the  railway.    The  only  difference  is  that 
the  latter  are  on  a  far  smaller  scale. 

Under  the  burning  rays  of  the  sun  these  red  sand  waves 
seem  to  the  weary  eyes  of  the  traveller  like  a  bloody  sea, 
and  not  even  every  Arab  will  dare,  during  the  hottest 
months,  to  cross  the  dreadful  Nefuds  even  on  a  swift 
dromedary.  The  extent  of  the  danger  can  be  judged  by 
a  fact  well  known  in  Bagdad,  of  a  daring  Bedouin  who 
crossed  these  burning  plains  in  the  summer  on  horseback. 
On  arriving  in  Bagdad,  his  horse's  hocks  were  burned 
and  cracked  as  if  seared  with  a  hot  iron,  and  the  scars 


ii6         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

thus  left  were  afterwards  covered  by  white  hair.  It  is  a 
mistake,  however,  to  picture  the  Nefuds  as  being  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year  barren  deserts.  In  the  springtime, 
after  the  rainy  season,  they  are  covered  luxuriantly  with  a 
particularly  juicy  nourishing  grass,  and  the  Nejd  Bed- 
ouins send  their  mares  there  to  pasture,  accompanied  by 
she-camels.  As  no  water  is  to  be  found  in  the  Nefuds, 
the  mares,  as  well  as  the  herdsmen,  drink  camel's  milk, 
the  camels  themselves,  owing  to  the  exceedingly  juicy 
grass,  being  able  to  do  without  water  during  the  two  to 
two  and  one-half  months  that  they  annually  spend  there. 
To  each  mare  is  usually  allowed  the  milk  of  one  camel. 

During  the  winter  on  account  of  its  altitude  and  sandy 
soil  it  often  freezes,  the  thermometer  dropping  as  low  as 
five  below  the  freezing  point  R.  at  night,  and  rising  to 
twenty  above  by  day.  Occasionally,  though  rarely,  snow 
falls. 

Aside  from  reptiles,  lizards,  etc.,  the  Nefud  fauna  in- 
cludes a  special  form  of  humped  antelope,  called  by  the 
Arabs  "  bakkar  vanash  "  or  wild  cow,  of  which  the  Arab 
poets  of  the  golden  age  sang;  also  ostriches,  hares  and 
gazelles,  which  latter,  according  to  Arab  belief,  never 
need  water.  But  in  spite  of  this  superstition,  these  grace- 
ful creatures  when  tormented  by  thirst  often  find  their 
death  in  wells,  causing  despair  to  the  traveller  who, 
parched  with  thirst,  is  obliged  to  drink  of  the  contami- 
nated water.  We  had  several  gazelles  in  Bagdad  as  pets. 
The  females  become  tame  very  quickly  and  are  gentle 
and  affectionate,  but  the  males  are  often  very  fierce,  at- 
tacking from  behind  and  overthrowing  a  grown  person. 
One  of  these  wounded  one  of  my  horses  by  running  his 
sharp  horn  deeply  into  the  animal's  side. 

In  the  Nefuds  are  to  be  found  red  locusts.  Whereas 
the  locust  brings  dread  to  the  heart  of  the  farmer,  here, 
in  the  Nefuds,  the  Bedouins  bless  their  appearance.  As 


ARABIA,  NEJD  AND  THE  WAHABEES     117 

soon  as  a  flight  of  locusts  is  seen  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
desert,  men,  women  and  children,  go  out  to  catch  them. 
Removing  the  wings,  they  dry  them  and  make  a  sort  of 
flour,  laying  in  supplies  for  a  year  or  more.  This  flour 
is  one  of  the  mainstays  of  the  Bedouin  in  this  part  of 
Arabia,  as  well  as  of  his  horse.  The  Bedouins  say  that 
the  locust  flour  is  twice  as  nourishing  to  their  horses  as 
the  same  quantity  of  barley  would  be. 

In  other  parts  of  Arabia  a  plant  called  samkh  is  one 
of  the  principal  articles  of  diet.  The  seed  of  this  plant 
is  ground  in  hand  mills  and  the  flour  baked.  Dates  are 
also  one  of  the  great  dependences  of  the  nomads. 
Camel's  meat  and  mutton,  the  Bedouins  eat  very  seldom, 
and  then  on  such  special  occasions  as  when  guests  arrive, 
x>r  some  other  ceremonial. 

Nejd  and  indeed  much  of  Central  Arabia  are  very 
little  known,  owing  to  their  isolated  position  and  the 
hardships  to  be  endured  by  the  traveller  who  braves  the 
journey,  and  therefore  Europeans  who  have  done  so  are 
easily  numbered.  During  the  past  century  one  of  the 
earliest  was  an  Englishman,  Captain  Sadler,  who  was  sent 
by  the  British  Government  in  1819  to  congratulate  Ibra- 
him Pasha  after  his  victory  over  the  Wahabees.  He 
crossed  the  peninsula  through  the  desert  from  east  to 
west  from  the  port  of  Katiff  on  the  Persian  Gulf  to 
Yambo  on  the  Red  Sea.  His  account  of  this  difficult 
journey  was  printed  in  a  report  that  had  a  limited  circu- 
lation and  was  therefore  unavailable  to  the  general  read- 
ers, and  only  fragmentary  quotations  are  to  be  found  in  a 
book  by  General  Tweedie,  formerly  British  consul  gen- 
eral in  Bagdad. 

In  1862-63  Palgrave  crossed  the  Nefuds  from  the  port 
of  Gaza  on  the  Mediterranean  to  Katiff  on  the  Persian 
Gulf.  In  1864  an  Italian  horse  dealer,  the  Levantine 
Gvarman,  went  from  Palestine  to  Nejd,  and  a  year  later 


ii8         LIFE   IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

an  English  officer,  Pelly,  made  the  journey  from  Quete, 
on  the  Persian  Gulf,  to  Riad,  the  capital  of  Nejd,  from 
which  point  he  descended  to  the  Gulf  of  Bahrein. 

In  1876-78  Doughty,  an  Englishman,  crossed  and  re- 
crossed  all  the  central  and  western  part  of  the  peninsula. 
His  daring  journeyings,  and  above  all,  the  conditions 
under  which  he  undertook  them,  are  little  known  to  the 
public,  but  deserve  to  be  classed  among  the  most  remark- 
able and  difficult  expeditions  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

In  1878-79  the  English  traveller  Lady  Anne  Blunt 
(the  granddaughter  of  Lord  Byron),  accompanied  by  her 
husband,  passed  through  the  desert  from  Beyrout  to 
Hayil  and  Bagdad,  cutting  in  this  way  clear  through  the 
peninsula. 

Finally,  in  1892,  a  Russian  traveller,  Baron  Nolde, 
whose  adventurous  life  had  a  most  tragic  end,  visited 
Nejd.  He  passed  from  Beyrout  to  Damascus,  Khaf, 
Djof,  Hayil,  and  returned  by  way  of  Nedjef,  Kerbela  and 
Bagdad. 

Thanks  to  its  isolated  and  inaccessible  position,  Nejd 
has  been  able  to  preserve,  up  to  the  present  time,  its  in- 
dependence. Not  only  that,  but  in  the  beginning  of  the 
last  century  it  startled  the  entire  Mohammedan  world 
when  the  ruler  of  Nejd  seized  Mecca  and  Medina,  con- 
tinued his  expedition  through  Syria  as  far  as  Damascus, 
menacing  the  integrity  of  Turkey,  and  founded,  under 
the  influence  of  religious  fanaticism,  the  Wahabee  king- 
dom. 

We  can  compare  the  Wahabee  sect,  in  its  attitude  to- 
wards Moslemism,  to  the  Protestants  among  Christians. 
The  name  was  derived  from  the  founder  of  the  sect,  Mo- 
hammed Ibn  Abdul  Wahaba,  who  began  his  teachings  in 
the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  was 
founded  on  a  desire  to  re-establish  the  Koran  teachings  in 
their  original  simplicity  and  purity  and  to  clear  away 


ARABIA,  NEJD  AND  THE  WAHABEES     119 

the  mass  that  had  been  formed  by  commentators  and  leg- 
ends, as  Wahaba  considered  these  as  only  perverting  the 
real  doctrine  taught  by  the  great  Prophet.  Starting 
from  this  point  Mohammed  Ibn  Abdul  Wahaba  consid- 
ered both  Shiites  and  Sunnites,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
whole  of  the  Mohammedan  world,  as  "  enemies  of  Islam," 
and  as  such  declared  against  them  relentless  warfare. 

In  defending  their  position  the  Wahabees  cite  a  long 
series  of  divergencies  from  the  Koran,  which  the  Mos- 
lems have  admitted.  They  in  particular  denounce 
"  tekkes "  of  Mohammedan  dervishes,  circumcision, 
mosques,  protest  against  luxury,  the  use  of  rich  garments, 
against  tobacco,  and  consider  a  priesthood  unnecessary, 
etc.  These  doctrines  found  ready  hearers  among  the  sim- 
ple Bedouins  unused  to  luxury,  and  still  more  so  among 
the  weaker  tribes,  which,  as  soon  as  their  allegiance  was 
promised,,  Mohammed  Ibn  Abdul  Wahaba  protected, 
and  so  gradually  all  the  Bedouins  of  Nejd  became  his 
followers. 

The  sect  gained  in  strength,  particularly  after  the  pow- 
erful ruler  of  the  province  of  Derej,  Mohammed  Ibn 
Sau'd,  declared  himself  as  the  first  Wahabee  emir,  and  his 
successors,  Abdul  Aziz  and  Sau'd,  brought  under  their 
sway  the  whole  of  Cenral  Arabia.  Gradually  the  sacred 
cities — the  Palestine  of  Islam — Mecca  and  Medina  fell 
into  their  hands,  and  pilgrims  found  access  to  them  only 
after  obtaining  the  permission  of  the  Wahabees. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  actual 
power  of  the  Wahabees  extended  far  beyond  the  limits  of 
Nejd.  They  sacked  the  famous  mosque  of  Kerbela,  mas- 
sacred the  inhabitants,  insulted  the  tomb  of  the  Imam 
Hussein,  so  deeply  venerated  by  Shiites,  and  then,  entirely 
controlling  the  Kaaba,  caused  a  thrill  of  horror  to  pass 
through  the  Islamic  world.  They  continued  their  inva- 
sions into  Irak  and  Syria,  forcing  Damascus  topayatrib- 


120         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

ute.  Matters  were  growing  serious,  but  the  Porte,  occu- 
pied with  European  complications,  could  only  depute  the 
Egyptian  viceroy,  Mohammed  All  Pasha,  to  fit  out  an 
expedition  to  occupy  the  Hedjaz. 

In  1811  the  energetic  viceroy  raised  an  army  of  ten 
thousand  men,  which  he  sent  under  the  command  of  his 
son,  Tusun  Pasha.  At  that  time  the  ruler  of  Nejd,  Sau'd, 
was  contemplating  descent  upon  Bagdad,  but  on  learning 
of  the  movements  of  Tusun  Pasha  he  abandoned  his  in- 
tentions. 

The  Wahabees  proved  to  be  obstinate  in  their  defence, 
and  Mohammed  Ali  Pasha  was  obliged  to  take  command 
of  a  new  force  that  marched  to  his  son's  aid.  But  even 
this  reinforcement  was  not  sufficient,  and  finally  in  1816 
a  fresh  army  was  sent  under  Ibrahim  Pasha.  This  last 
army,  after  many  defeats  and  hardships,  succeeded  in 
entering  Nejd  and  in  taking  several  minor  cities  and  lay- 
ing siege  to  Derei,  the  then  capital  of  Nejd.  At  this  date 
the  ruler  was  Abdullah,  the  son  of  Sau'd.  Derei  held  out 
against  the  siege  for  six  months,  but  was  finally  taken 
through  the  personal  bravery  of  Ibrahim  Pasha.  Abdul- 
lah was  obliged  to  surrender  and  forced  to  return  the 
spoils  he  had  taken  from  mosques.  Derei  was  razed  to 
the  ground  and  in  1818  Abdullah  was  executed  in  Con- 
stantinople. From  that  time  the  fall  of  the  Wahabee 
kingdom  began,  but  the  Egyptian  army  continued  to  oc- 
cupy Riad  up  to  1842.  From  the  time  of  the  withdrawal 
of  the  Egyptian  forces  a  series  of  struggles  began  among 
rival  pretenders  to  the  emirship,  until  finally  Moham- 
med Ibn-al-Rashid,  the  ruler  of  Hayil,  better  known  as 
Ibn  Rashid,  succeeded  in  1872  in  making  himself  the 
sole  ruler  of  all  Nejd. 

Ibn  Rashid  reached  the  height  of  his  power  only  after 
stepping  over  the  dead  bodies  of  all  his  near  relatives. 
He  was  a  typical  Oriental  usurper,  but  a  person  of  strik- 


121 

ing  historical  interest,  reminding  one  in  his  political  views 
of  the  late  Abdurrahman  Khan,  emir  of  Afganistan. 
When  we  went  to  Bagdad  Ibn  Rashid  was  at  the  height 
of  his  power  and  enjoyed  great  popularity,  not  only 
among  the  peninsular  Arabs  but  among  those  of  Meso- 
potamia and  the  Syrian  desert  as  well.  He  had  removed 
his  capital  from  Riad  to  Hayil,  a  small  town  of  only  ten 
thousand  inhabitants  in  the  southeast  part  of  Nejd.  Ibn 
Rashid  resided  there  only  during  the  four  hottest 
months,  living  the  rest  of  the  year  as  a  Bedouin  in  the 
desert  or  fighting  with  unruly  tribes,  and  from  such  raids 
he  always  returned  victorious  and  with  rich  spoils. 

The  city  of  Hayil  is  surrounded  by  mud  walls  and  the 
"palace"  itself  is  strongly  fortified.  Ibn  Rashid's  pal- 
ace is  a  huge  pile  of  buildings  composed  of  numberless 
small  rooms  opening  into  long  corridors  that  surround 
courtyards.  Adjoining  the  palace  is  a  garden  in  which 
there  are  many  fine  gazelles.  The  water  for  irrigating 
this  garden  as  well  as  for  the  extremely  small  plots  of 
ground  planted  with  date  palms,  barley  and  wheat,  is  ob- 
tained from  wells  by  animal  power.  As  the  cultivation 
is  so  limitedj  grain  is  brought  to  Hayil  from  Bagdad  and 
Basso  rah. 

In  this  palace  Ibn  Rashid  personally  sits  in  judgment 
and  the  humblest  of  his  subjects  has  free  access  to  him. 
Here,  too,  he  has  an  enormous  kitchen  in  which  he  takes 
great  pride.  Food  is  prepared  not  only  for  Ibn  Ra- 
shid's family,  servants  and  retinue,  but  for  the  numerous 
Bedouins  that  come  in  from  the  distant  parts  of  the  des- 
ert. In  all  as  many  as  two  hundred  are  thus  fed  daily,  and 
for  this  large  family  seven  camels  or  forty  sheep  are 
slaughtered  each  day.  The  kitchen  is  built  to  meet  such 
demands,  with  kettles  so  vast  that  in  each  one  the  meat  of 
three  camels  can  be  boiled  1 

Another  pride  of  Ibn  Rashid  is  his  stud,  in  which 


122        LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

many  thoroughbred  mares  of  great  value  are  to  be  found. 
Many  of  the  mares  he  buys  of  desert  sheikhs,  whom  he 
forces  to  sell  at  his  own  price;  it  is  not  to  be  wondered 
at,  therefore,  that  owners  of  blood  mares  take  every  pains 
to  conceal  them  from  Ibn  Rashid.  The  rest  of  his  mares 
are  the  results  of  his  victorious  raids  or  "  ghazus." 

His  annual  revenue  is  very  considerable,  being,  it  is 
said,  three  hundred  and  seventy-five  thousand  dollars 
above  his  expenditures.  The  source  of  his  income  is  de- 
rived largely  from  war  spoils,  from  considerable  taxes 
levied  on  subjugated  tribes,  and  a  goodly  sum  from  pil- 
grims to  Mecca  and  Medina  who  pass  through  Hayil. 
This  last  is  obtained  by  hiring  camels  for  them  from  the 
Bedouins.  For  instance,  from  Hayil  to  Nedjef,  twenty 
days'  hard  march  through  a  waterless  waste,  he  pays  the 
Bedouin  ten  medjidiehs  for  each  camel,  but  charges  the 
pilgrim  twice  that  price!  As  these  caravans  are  often 
made  up  of  from  four  to  five  thousand  camels  yearly,  it 
is  easy  to  conceive  that  the  revenue  thus  received  is  very 
considerable.  With  each  caravan  Ibn  Rashid  sends  a 
trustworthy  man  known  as  the  Emir-al-Hadj,  or  the 
leader  of  the  caravan,  who  settles  the  marching  and  halt- 
ing places,  etc.,  etc.  These  Emir-al-Hadjs  in  turn  also 
fleece  the  poor  pilgrims,  as  in  stopping  where  there  are 
no  wells  and  refusing  to  move  the  camp  until  a  sum  of 
money  is  laid  down.  So  difficult  is  the  twenty  days' 
march  through  the  burning  desert  with  scanty  water  that 
fifteen  per  cent,  of  the  camels  usually  die,  when  the  pil- 
grims are  obliged  to  walk  and  to  carry  their  goods  as  well. 
Many  human  lives,  too,  are  lost  in  the  terrible  Nefuds, 
and  such  unfortunate  ones  find  a  hastily  dug  and  nameless 
grave  in  the  desert.  During  the  reign  of  Ibn  Rashid's 
predecessor,  Tallal,  entire  caravans  were,  with  his  con- 
nivance, left  by  their  guides  to  perish  of  thirst,  the  be- 
longings of  which  were  afterwards  brought  to  Tallal. 


ARABIA    NETD  AND  THE  WAHABEES    123 

This  is  no  longer  practised,  Ibn  Rashid  guaranteeing 
the  safety  of  the  caravans  he  guides.  It  is  necessary  here 
to  notice  that  before  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  the 
number  of  pilgrims  following  this  route  was  very  much 
greater  than  at  the  present  time. 

The  climate  of  NejH  is  very  healthy ;  here  and  there  are  to 
be  found  inhabited  oases,  as,  for  instance,  those  of  Riad, 
Monfug  and  Harag.  Throughout  Nejd  slavery  is  to  be 
met  with.  The  slaves  are  black,  and,  as  is  almost  univer- 
sal in  the  East,  are  well  treated  by  their  masters. 

If  I  have  dwelt  so  long  on  Nejd,  it  is  because  every 
Arab,  be  he  a  wanderer  in  Mesopotamia  or  Syria,  always 
keeps  in  touch  with  Nejd  and  in  tracing  his  ancestors  is 
sure  to  run  up  against  one  who  left  Nejd.  A  wandering 
Nejddian  will  always  find  himself  treated  with  a  certain 
consideration  by  other  tribes  who  have  long  left  the  com- 
mon cradle  of  their  race.  The  Arab  prizes  his  geneal- 
ogy, but  not  in  the  sense  known  to  Europeans.  Family 
aristocracy  or  nobility  is  not  known,  nor  can  they  under- 
stand the  raison  d'etre  of  our  titles.  Every  Bedouin  is  in 
himself  an  aristocrat;  this  he  sees  in  the  pureness  of  his 
blood  traced  through  a  long  line  of  ancestors  who  mar- 
ried maidens  of  the  same  tribe,  or  of  another  equally  pure 
Bedouin  tribe.  As  a  rule  Bedouins  prefer  to  marry 
among  near  relatives,  an  act  which  is  permitted  by  their 
religion  and  encouraged  by  the  tradition  of  the  Prophet 
Mohammed's  having  charged  the  Arabs  to  preserve  the 
pureness  of  their  blood.  This  is  evidently  a  relic  of  Ju- 
daism, reminding  us  of  Sarah,  who  was  the  half  sister  of 
Abraham. 

Let  us  now  turn  to  glance  at  that  part  of  the  Asiatic 
continent  peopled  by  Arabs,  known  as  Mesopotamia,  and 
to  the  tracts  lying  west  of  the  Euphrates.  The  entire 
northern  part  of  Mesopotamia,  forming  a  triangle  with 
Bagdad  and  Mossoul  at  the  base,  and  Aleppo  at  the  point, 


124         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

is  called  by  the  Arabs  "  El  Jezira,"  or  cut  off,  or  island. 
I  was  never  able  to  understand  the  derivation  of  the  name 
nor  how  in  the  flat  desert  with  few  landmarks  the  Arabs 
could  always  define  its  boundaries.  "  We  are  now  enter- 
ing Jezira,"  our  guides  would  say;  one  looks  about  and 
only  sees  as  far  as  the  horizon  a  flat  tamarisk-covered  des- 
ert without  sign  of  life. 

South  of  El  Jezira  the  rest  of  Mesopotamia,  down  to 
the  juncture  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  is  known  to  the 
Arabs  as  El  Irak.  On  the  other  side  the  wide  tract 
stretching  west  of  the  Euphrates  to  the  confines  of  Pales- 
tine and  Syria  and  to  the  mountains  of  Jeb-el-Shama  to 
the  south  is  called  Shamiya  or  desert.  Between  the 
Shamiya  and  the  mountains  of  Jeb-el-Shamiya  are  to  be 
found  the  Nefuds.  Throughout  all  this  vast  space  are 
nomadic  Arabs  of  various  tribes  who  migrate  according 
to  the  seasons  of  the  year  from  one  part  to  another,  from 
their  winter  to  their  summer  camping  grounds.  The 
physical  conditions  of  the  Shamiya  are  nearly  the  same 
as  those  to  be  found  in  the  Arabian  peninsula,  with  this 
difference,  that  in  the  Shamiya  Bedouins  camp  nearer  to 
inhabited  places  and  more  often  find  water.  The  last 
named  difference  gives,  of  course,  a  great  advantage, 
especially  during  the  rainless  season  of  the  year,  when 
many  wells  go  dry.  At  such  times  the  Shamiya  Bedouins 
follow  the  course  of  the  Euphrates,  for  those  of  the  Ara- 
bian peninsula  often  perish  in  large  numbers,  losing  first 
their  horses  and  finally  the  camels,  without  which  exist- 
ence is  impossible.  Indeed,  the  life  of  the  Arab  is  closely 
dependent  on  that  of  the  camel.  It  is  not  surprising, 
therefore,  that  the  Arabian  poets  of  the  Golden  Age  dedi- 
cated entire  poems  to  the  camel,  and  that  in  every  literary 
work  of  that  time,  whatever  its  subject,  references  were 
made  to  the  she-camel.  Whether  Arabia  be  the  original 
home  of  the  camel,  scholars  have  not  decided,  but  cer- 


ARABIA,  NEJD  AND  THE  WAHABEES     125 

tainly  there  is  no  creature  so  well  adapted  to  the  condi- 
tions of  that  inhospitable  land.  Oman  and  Nejd  are 
specially  famed  for  their  camels,  and  each  district  of  these 
countries  has  its  particular  breed  noted  for  one  or  another 
quality.  For  instance,  there  are  pack  camels,  pacing 
dromedaries  of  dhalul,  that  run  with  so  smooth  a  gait 
that  it  is  possible  to  sleep  while  riding,  and  they  are  there- 
fore called  naami  (sleep). 

Particular  in  preserving  the  pureness  of  their  own 
blood,  Arabs  are  equally  careful  in  their  camel  and  horse 
breeding.  The  camel  is  held  as  almost  sacred  by  the 
Arabs.  From  its  back  the  Prophet  delivered  eloquent 
sermons,  on  its  back  he  fled  from  Medina,  even  the  very 
name  of  his  favourite  she-camel  has  come  down  to  us, 
El-Kaswa.1 

The  camel  has  a  part  in  the  religious  ceremonies  con- 
nected with  the  payment  of  "  the  price  of  blood,"  where 
a  murderer  is  obliged  to  give  a  certain  number  of  camels 
as  the  price  of  the  man  he  has  killed.  In  enumerating 
certain  objects  or  animals  an  Arab  will  say  "  so  many 
head  "  or  "  so  many,"  but  in  speaking  of  camels  he  will 
say  "  so  many  persons  (nefer)"  in  a  herd.  In  this  way  a 
herd  of  ten  horses  can  be  described  as  "  ten  head,"  but  a 
herd  of  camels  as  "  ten  persons."  Finally  the  camel  is 
the  absolutely  necessary  factor  in  the  life  of  both  the  Bed- 
ouin and  his  horse.  The  happiest  events  in  the  life  of  a 
Bedouin  are  the  births  of  a  she-camel,  of  a  son  and  of  a 
she-foal.  The  young  camels  are  cared  for  as  children,  and 
the  nearer  on  the  social  ladder  the  Arab  stands  to  the  real 
Bedouin,  the  higher  rises  his  love  for  the  camel.  Every 
part  of  this  animal  is  of  use  to  man.  From  the  hair  the 

1It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  Mohammedans  have  preserved  many 
details  of  the  intimate  life  of  their  great  Prophet.  We  know  not  only  the 
name  of  Mohammed's  barber,  whose  grave  serves  as  an  object  of  pilgrim- 
age, but  also  the  name  of  his  favourite  mule,  Dul  Dul,  and  of  his  ass,  Urfa. 


ia6        LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

Bedouin  makes  his  mantle  and  his  tent;  the  camel's  milk 
forms  a  large  part  of  both  his  own  food  and  that  of  his 
horse — in  some  cases,  indeed,  it  is  the  only  nourishment 
they  have.  Thanks  to  the  camel  the  Bedouin  can  travel 
in  waterless  places,  and  on  its  back  are  made  the  raids,  or 
"  ghazus."  Horses  are  used  only  in  actual  battle.  The 
hard  excrement  of  the  camel  serves  as  fuel,  and  the  liquid 
in  waterless  places  for  ablutions.  The  flesh  is  also  used 
as  food  and  that  of  the  young  camel  is  regarded  as  a  lux- 
ury. Above  all  other  animals  it  is  considered  clean,  in 
the  Oriental  sense  of  the  word.  The  doctrine  of  pure 
and  impure  objects  and  creatures  forms,  as  is  well  known, 
one  of  the  prominent  features  in  the  tenets  of  Mohamme- 
danism. For  instance,  in  accordance  with  this  teaching, 
Christians,  and  particularly  wet  Christians  (that  is,  whose 
clothes  happen  to  be  wet) ,  and  scaleless  fishes  are  counted 
as  unclean.  Finally,  the  camel  often  saves,  at  the  expense 
of  its  own,  the  life  of  its  master.  I  do  not  include  here 
only  those  who  perish  from  being  overridden  or  of  thirst. 
That  is  of  frequent  occurrence.  But  occasionally  the  Bed- 
ouin kills  his  camel  for  the  liquid  found  in  its  stomach. 
Or  as  happened  in  the  following  well-known  case  that 
took  place  in  Shamiya  a  number  of  years  ago,  and  which 
I  will  relate.  During  the  winter  months  there  is  often  a 
peculiarly  cold  wind,  and  although  the  temperature  sel- 
dom falls  at  such  times  to  more  than  one  or  two  degrees 
below  the  freezing  point,  the  Arabs,  overtaken  by  such 
winds,  or  "  gehan,"  as  they  are  called,  frequently  freeze 
to  death.  This  is  explained  by  the  fact  of  their  being 
little  prepared  physically  to  endure  cold,  nor  is  their 
clothing  sufficient.  Such  a  wind  overtook  a  raiding  party 
of  Arabs,  and  all  perished,  with  the  exception  of  one  in- 
genious Bedouin  who,  cutting  open  his  camel's  belly, 
crawled  into  the  warm  cavity  and  thus  saved  himself. 
The  Bedouin  camels  are  all  branded,  the  brand  of  each 


ARABIA,  NEJD  AND  THE  WAHABEES     127 

owner  being  registered  in  a  very  original  way.  Near  the 
city  of  Ana,  on  the  Euphrates,  the  boundary  of  Shamiya, 
are  the  ruins  of  a  bridge  that  once  spanned  what  is  now  a 
dry  river  bed.  On  the  stones  forming  these  ruins  each 
Arab  registers  his  own  camel's  mark  for  all  to  get.  Just 
here  an  interesting  parallel  may  be  mentioned.  While 
travelling  in  the  Pamirs  where  the  Kirghizes  migrate 
from  the  Alai  to  the  Pamirs,  we  saw  on  the  rocky  face  of 
a  cliff  the  register  of  their  horses'  brands.  These  rocks 
had  evidently  been  used  for  the  same  purpose  during  a 
long  period  of  time,  for  the  marks  showed  the  gradual 
progress  of  civilisation  and  of  art,  so  to  speak — from 
primitive  straight  lines  to  more  complicated  curves  and 
circles.  This  parallel  proves  once  more  how  the  same 
circumstances  give  rise  to  identical  customs  which  can  in 
no  way  be  traced  to  imitation. 

From  all  that  has  been  said  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that 
the  camels  and  Bedouins  are  so  intimately  connected  that 
one  can  hardly  exist  without  the  other.  Full  of  signifi- 
cance, therefore,  is  the  Arab  proverb  ",God  created  the 
camel  for  the  Arab  and  the  Arab  for  the  camel." 

The  best  camels  come  from  Oman  on  the  Arabian  shore 
of  the  Persian  Gulf,  then  follow  those  of  Nejd.  The  lat- 
ter are  mostly  white  and  grey,  those  of  the  Shammar 
tribes  being  reddish  brown.  Black  camels  are  rare.  The 
Arabs  consider  the  one-humped  camel  to  be  a  native  of 
Arabia  and  the  two-humped  as  coming  from  Persia,  and 
they  call  the  latter  Bactrian  camels.  The  one-humped 
camels  are  more  enduring,  though  they  cannot  carry  as 
heavy  loads  as  do  the  two-humped  variety.  In  times  of 
drought  a  one-humped  camel  can  go  as  long  as  five  times 
twenty-four  hours  without  water,  whereas  the  two- 
humped  camels  cannot  exist  for  more  than  three  days 
without  drink.  This  is  the  cause  of  the  Arabs  calling  the 
latter  Djemal  mai,  or  water  samels. 


i28         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

The  Syrian  two-humped  camel  is  the  greatest  weight 
carrier,  being  able  on  long  journeys  to  make  as  many  as 
seventy  miles  in  twenty-four  hours  with  a  load  of  from 
four  hundred  and  thirty  to  five  hundred  and  forty  pounds. 
The  Mesopotamian  camels  are  weaker  in  this  respect, 
carrying  under  equal  circumstances  not  more  than  three 
hundred  and  sixty  pounds.  The  carefully  bred  pacing 
dromedaries  are  raised  in  Central  Arabia.  These  animals 
can  make  eighty  miles  in  twenty-four  hours  and  as  much 
as  ninety  miles  in  thirty  hours.  In  journeys  of  long  dis- 
tances, seven  days  or  more,  they  are  able  to  keep  up  an 
average  of  sixty  miles  in  the  twenty-four  hours.  For  in- 
stance, the  messengers  of  Ibn-al-Rashid,  who  are  sent 
from  Hayil  to  Bassorah,  make  this  distance,  about  500 
miles,  in  six  days  and  nights,  but  to  develop  such  a  breed 
requires  not  only  skill  but  love  of  the  beast.  Nowhere 
in  the  East  are  camels  so  well  cared  for  as  in  Arabia. 

All  those  who  have  had  experience  with  these  "  ships 
of  the  desert "  must,  however,  admit  that  they  have  very 
serious  defects.  They  are  stupid  in  the  extreme,  sullen 
and  revengeful.  When  made  to  kneel,  the  camel  grum- 
bles loudly;  when  being  mounted,  he  turns  his  long  neck, 
showing  his  teeth,  and  would  bite  if  he  dared.  During 
the  march  if  the  rider  drowses  or  is  careless  the  camel  will 
get  off  the  track,  browsing  on  such  bushes  as  he  may  find 
and  forgetting  that  a  rider  or  a  road  exists,  quite  ready  to 
go  on  thus  for  the  remainder  of  his  natural  days.  He 
will  never  find  the  road  nor  keep  to  it  if  left  to  himself. 
Not  even  will  he  find  his  way  home,  and  he  seems  to  have 
no  attachment  to  place  nor  master.  In  time  of  danger 
if  he  is  pressed  to  greater  speed  than  he  considers  just,  he 
will  grumble  audibly  and  finally  lie  down.  If  he  once 
falls,  no  power  will  persuade  him  to  make  an  effort  to 
rise  until  his  load  is  removed.  Camels  are  frequently 
given  to  stampeding  and  will  then  run  miles  in  their 
fright. 


ARABIA,  NEJD  AND  THE  WAHABEES     129 

The  ill  temper  of  camels,  especially  at  certain  times  of 
the  year,  is  something  frightful.  I  shall  cite  two  instan- 
ces as  examples  of  a  camel's  vengeance  and  ill  temper. 
Once  I  went  from  Tabriz,  the  chief  city  of  Azerbaijan,  to 
Urumiah  on  post  horses.  Early  in  the  morning,  cantering 
along  the  plain  near  the  village  of  Gavalan,  I  noticed 
camels  grazing  not  far  from  the  road.  One  attracted  my 
attention.  He  was  lying  near  a  large  rock  with  out- 
stretched neck  and  making  what  seemed  to  me  unusual 
motions.  Several  days  later,  on  my  return  journey,  I 
heard  the  explanation  of  the  scene.  According  to  the 
tale  of  a  boy,  who  had  witnessed  it  from  a  distance,  the 
camel  man  had  struck  the  beast,  a  large  male,  who  turned 
fiercely  upon  his  master.  The  man  ran  for  his  life 
towards  some  large  rocks  and  began  to  climb,  hoping  to 
get  out  of  reach,  but  the  camel  overtook  him.  Raising 
its  long  neck  the  infuriated  animal  got  hold  of  its  vic- 
tim's leg  and  pulled  him  down.  Then  began  a  sickening 
scene.  The  camel  bit  and  mauled  the  man  and  then 
rolled  on  him  until  there  was  only  a  flattened  mangled 
mass.  All  day  the  camel  kept  watch  over  the  body,  from 
time  to  time  leaving  its  grazing  to  return  to  crush  and 
roll  what  was  left  of  his  victim.  No  one  dared  to  ap- 
proach, for  when  an  attempt  was  made  to  drive  the  camel 
away,  it  attacked  so  fiercely  that  finally  it  had  to  be  shot. 

Another  case  was  in  Meshed.  A  string  of  camels  was 
passing  along  one  of  the  principal  streets  when  a  small 
boy  struck  one  of  them  with  a  stick.  The  camel  turned 
and,  seizing  the  boy,  inflicted  serious  injuries  before  help 
could  arrive. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
BEDOUINS 

What  are  Bedouins,  Hidkaris  and  Fellaheen— Gradations  between 
their  Tribes,  Sub-tribes  and  Families — Care  in  Preserving  Pureness 
of  Blood — Sheikhs,  their  Significance,  Powers  and  Duties — Customs 
—Religion— Abstinence  of  Bedouins  and  its  Cause— Early  Hard- 
ships—Marriage—Polygamy— Divorce— On  What  Bedouins  Exist— 
Hunting  with  Hounds  and  Falcons— Sheep  Raising— Raids— Sheep 
Lifting— Ghazus — Blood  Feuds — The  Bedouin  in  Poetry  and  in 
Reality — Explanation  of  Hospitality  of  Bedouins — Their  Idea  con- 
cerning Muscovites — Four  Seasons  of  the  Bedouin  Year — Spring — 
Migration  or  "  Rahla  " — Order  of  March — Camping — Dry  Milk  as 
One  of  the  Chief  Items  of  Bedouins'  Diet — Their  Period  of  Hunger 
— Bedouin's  Day — What  They  Eat  during  Famine  Period — Lack  of 
Water — Diseases — Sacrifices  or  "  Kurban  " — Arrival  of  Guests — 
Justice — Position  of  Women. 

THE  word  Bedouin  is  derived  from  "  badia,"  desert.  The 
nomadic  Arabs  thus  style  themselves,  as  distinguishing 
between  them  and  the  sedentary  or  semi-sedentary  Arabs, 
who  are  given  the  general  term  of  Hidkari.  Arabs  who 
till  the  land  are  known  as  fellaheen.  But  between  these 
two  extremes — the  real  nomadic  desert  Bedouin  and  the 
farmer  fellah — there  are  many  connecting  degrees. 
These  may  be  traced  by  various  outward  signs,  as  the  pos- 
session of  certain  domestic  animals.  The  true  Bedouin 
keeps  but  three  of  these  animals :  camels,  horses  and  grey- 
hounds. The  richer  Bedouins  also  keep  hawks.  They 
do  not  engage  in  sheep  breeding.  When  sheep  are  found 
among  Bedouins  it  is  the  exception,  not  the  rule.  The 
next  degree  is  the  addition  of  the  ass.  The  true  Bedouin 

130 


BEDOUINS  131 

regards  it  as  a  disgrace  to  ride  an  ass  and  looks  down  upon 
the  Arab  who  lowers  himself  by  employing  this  humble 
beast.  Further,  if  the  tribe  takes  up  regular  sheep  breed- 
ing and  the  greyhound  is  replaced  by  the  sheep  dog,  it 
shows  a  decided  advance  towards  the  industrial  state. 
Finally,  the  appearance  of  cattle  stamps  the  tribe  as  no 
longer  nomadic,  but  as  settled  fellaheen.  The  Bedouins 
say: 

"  El  hall  lil  bela, 
El  djemmel  lil  hela, 
Bal  beger, 
Lei  fakir." 

That  is,  the  horse  for  the  gentleman,  the  camel  for  the 
desert,  and  the  bullock  for  the  poor. 

The  Bedouins  are  divided  into  tribes,  the  tribes  into 
sub-tribes,  and  the  latter  into  families,  and  each  division 
has  its  significance.  But  however  numerous  the  members 
of  these  families  may  be,  they  never  lose  their  connection 
with  the  original  branches  and  tribe.  This  connection 
is  kept  up  by  intermarriages,  thus  preserving  the  pureness 
of  the  blood.  Marriages  between  near  relations,  such  as 
cousins,  are  so  common  as  to  give  rise  to  the  expression 
"bint'amm,"  "uncle's  daughter,"  being  considered  as 
synonymous  with  "  wife."  It  is  to  be  noticed  that  though 
in  all  the  tongues  spoken  by  Moslems  there  is  a  word  cor- 
responding to  our  term  wife,  it  is  not  considered  the 
proper  thing  to  use  it,  and  all  sorts  of  expressions  are  em- 
ployed to  evade  it.  For  instance,  the  polite  Persian  will 
speak  of  the  "  mother  of  his  son,"  or  the  "  mother  of  the 
light  of  my  eyes"  (nuri  cheshim),  and  the  Arab,  of  "my 
uncle's  daughter." 

The  Bedouins  migrating  between  Aleppo  and  Nejd 
are  divided  into  two  large  and  powerful  tribes,  the  Aeni- 
zeh  and  the  Shammar.  These  two  main  tribes  are  broken 


132         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

up  into  many  distinct  sub-tribes,  but  all  claim  one  com- 
mon origin.  The  dividing  up  of  large  tribes  into  smaller 
fractions  arises  from  the  necessity  of  seeking  fresh  pasture 
when  the  increasing  number  of  the  tribe  makes  it  neces- 
sary. Another  cause  is  sometimes  differences  of  opinion 
in  matters  concerning  the  internal  economy  of  the  tribal 
life — quarrels  over  pasturages  (as  of  Abraham  and  Lot 
of  old) ,  choice  of  sheikhs,  etc.  In  this  way  we  often  meet 
with  sub-tribes  or  families  who  camp  hundreds  of  miles 
from  each  other,  but  the  fact  does  not  prevent  them  from 
continuing  the  intimate  family  connection.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  identify  a  given  tribe  with  any  definite  locality, 
for  they  range  over  hundreds  of  miles,  according  to  the 
season  of  the  year,  moving,  for  instance,  from  about  Nejd 
up  as  far  as  Damascus,  some  600  miles  in  a  straight  line. 
The  Shammars  and  Aenizeh  have  been  enemies  from  of 
old.  This  fact  gives  rise  at  times  to  curious  complica- 
tions. If,  for  instance,  a  feud  arises  between  two  sub- 
tribes  of  the  Shammars,  the  weaker  of  the  two  will  take 
refuge  with  the  Aenizeh.  In  this  way  the  Shammar  sub- 
tribe,  Saie,  went  over  to  the  Aenizeh,  while  several 
branches  of  the  latter  have,  in  the  same  way,  joined  the 
Shammars. 

Besides  these  great  tribes,  there  are  many  small  ones, 
as,  for  example,  the  Hubeisen,  found  in  the  Nefuds,  and 
the  Solibah,  an  unknown  tribe0  Some  travellers  have 
suggested  that  the  latter  may  be  a  remnant  of  a  Christian 
people,  from  tracing  the  name  of  the  tribe,  Solibah,  to 
"saleb,"  cross.  This  is,  as  yet,  open  to  question.  It  is, 
however,  a  fact  that  this  tribe  lives  in  isolation,  never 
mixing  with  the  Mussulman  Arabs,  who  speak  of  them  as 
"  Kelabn-l'Kala,"  wild  dogs.  This  tribe  is  found  along 
a  vast  extent  of  territory  lying  between  Nejd  and  Syria. 
They  possess  only  asses  and  live  by  hunting — so  that 
Arabs  say  that  all  the  game  of  the  desert  belongs  to  this 


BEDOUINS  133 

tribe.  Even  their  tents  are  not  of  the  camel's-hair  cloth 
of  the  Arab,  but  are  made  of  skins,  mostly  of  the  gazelle. 
They  also  act  as  doctors  for  man  and  beast,  carpenters  or 
what  passes  for  such  in  the  desert,  as  well  as  blacksmiths. 
So  the  Bedouins  are  independent  upon  them  in  these 
ways. 

The  Arabs  are  able  to  identify  by  his  appearance  a 
stranger  whom  they  may  meet  as  belonging  to  this  or  that 
tribe.  As,  for  instance,  the  Shammars  by  their  abnormal 
height,  Sobkars  by  their  short  stature  and  the  long  spears 
they  carry.  The  Ruwalas,  on  the  contrary,  have  short 
spears;  other  tribes  are  recognised  by  the  colour  of  their 
burnooses,  by  their  horses,  camels,  etc. 

Each  of  the  tribes  and  sub-tribes  has  its  own  sheikri, 
chosen  by  the  tribe  for  special  merits,  or  the  position  may 
be  hereditary.  The  sheikh  is  the  chief  and  remains  as 
such  as  long  as  the  people  will  it.  He  is  generally 
richer  than  the  other  members  of  the  tribe,  and  on 
him,  therefore,  rests  the  burden  of  hospitality,  and  his 
guest  tent  is  always  open.  He  is  the  judge,  the  president 
of  the  council  of  elders  and  of  an  arbitration  court.  His 
decisions  are  based  upon  tradition  and  usage  and  as  such 
are  generally  accepted  without  protest.  The  sheikh 
holds  court  daily  in  his  tent,  listens  to  complaints  and 
quarrels,  often  of  the  most  intimate  family  nature,  and  his 
decisions  are  of  necessity  just,  or  otherwise  they  could  not 
be  carried  out.  A  sheikh  must  be  not  only  an  impartial 
judge,  but  brave  in  warfare  and  on  ghazus,  or  raids.  Oc- 
casionally, however,  a  ghazu  is  led,  not  by  the  sheikh  in 
person,  but  by  his  permission  some  noted  warrior  of  the 
tribe  who  may  take  his  place.  In  such  cases  this  leader,  or 
"  akid,"  as  he  is  called,  lays  the  plans  and  carries  out  the 
raid.  A  sheikh  who  succeeds,  by  his  justice  and  skill,  in 
settling  disputes,  and  by  upholding  the  rights  of  his  peo- 
ple, is  sure  of  his  position  and  that  of  his  family.  A 


134         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

sheikh  must  be  "open  handed,"  that  is,  generous.  Not 
only  hospitable,  but  ready  to  help  any  member  of  the 
tribe  who  may  be  in  trouble,  having  lost  a  horse  in  a 
ghazu,  or  a  camel  by  sickness. 

The  Bedouin's  religion  is  not  complicated.  He  con- 
tents himself  with  acknowledging  in  a  vague  general  way 
Allah  as  a  supreme  being,  and  Mohammed  his  prophet. 
The  future  life,  Paradise,  is  to  the  Bedouin,  as  to  all  Mo- 
hammedans, a  place  of  material  pleasures.  He  has  no 
inclination  for  deeper  theological  questions,  and  if  you 
try  to  find  out  his  views,  he  will  invariably  refer  you  to 
the  sheikh,  "who  knows  all  things."  The  Bedouin's  mor- 
als are  the  ethics  that  govern  the  desert,  according  to 
which  theft,  unfaithfulness  to  a  trust  and  inhospitality, 
are  universally  denounced.  These  principles,  however, 
do  not  hinder  raids,  for  the  Arabs  consider  them  to  be 
lawful  as  directed  against  a  hostile  tribe.  An  unbeliever, 
or  non-Moslem,  is,  however,  outside  these  moral  obliga- 
tions. To  rob  and  murder  an  unbeliever,  or  to  betray 
him  is  not  considered  a  crime  by  the  Bedouins.  It  is 
true  that  he  will  not  kill  or  betray  an  unbeliever  who  has 
partaken  of  his  hospitality  in  his  guest  tent,  but  does  not 
hesitate  to  do  so,  once  the  stranger  has  left  his  camp. 
Mullahs  or  any  ecclesiastics  are  rarely  to  be  found  among 
the  Bedouins,  except  occasionally  as  an  appendage  to  a 
rich  sheikh.  This  absence  of  clergy  gives  rise  to  the 
Turkish  definition  of  the  Arabs  as  a  "  people  who  have 
no  religion,  whose  women  wear  no  drawers,  whose  sad- 
dles lack  stirrups  and  whose  bridles  have  no  bits,"  and 
this  is  true.  As  to  education,  there  is  nothing  to  be  said. 
Bedouins  are  very  suspicious  of  the  art  of  reading  and 
writing.  They  say  a  man  who  can  write  risks  ruining 
his  whole  life  by  a  single  stroke  of  his  pen. 

A  Bedouin  is  most  abstemious;  this  is  one  of  his  chief 
characteristics  and  is  the  result  of  hunger  and  hardship 


BEDOUINS  135 

begun  in  infancy  and  lasting  throughout  his  life,  and 
there  is  reason  for  the  Bedouin  calling  himself  "  the  son 
of  patience."  His  whole  life  is  one  series  of  privations. 
A  large  number  of  Arabs  first  see  the  light,  not  under  a 
tent,  but  on  the  march,  by  the  roadside,  and  this  is  a  fit- 
ting beginning  of  a  life  of  direst  poverty.  It  is  said  that 
Bedouins  are  strong  physically,  enduring  and  healthy. 
That  is  true,  but  only  on  the  principle  of  the  "  survival  of 
the  fittest."  The  struggle  is  too  hard  for  the  weak.  A 
delicate  person  has  no  place  in  the  Bedouins'  life.  Such 
generally  die  as  children,  and  few  Bedouins  live  to  an 
old  age.  The  birth  of  a  son  is  an  occasion  for  rejoicing 
and  feasting,  according  to  the  means  of  the  parent:  the 
unlucky  child,  however,  meets  with  a  Spartan  treatment 
that  is  intended  to  make  a  man  of  him  if  he  survives.  The 
newly-born  infant  is  laid,  quite  naked,  in  the  sand  all 
night,  and  throughout  the  day  he  is  exposed  to  the  burn- 
ing sun.  A  "  baby  must  be  cooked,"  the  Arabs  say,  if  he 
is  ever  to  be  a  man.  And  this  is  done,  not  only  among 
nomad  tribes,  but  even  among  peasant  and  sometimes  city 
Arabs.  As  soon  as  the  child  can  creep,  the  mother  leaves 
it  pretty  much  to  its  own  devices,  and  when  it  can  walk,  it 
is  allowed  to  do  whatever  it  has  courage  for.  Up  to 
seven  years  of  age  the  Bedouin  children  are  as  naked  as 
the  day  they  were  born.  After  that  age  they  have  a  shirt 
that  is  worn  until  it  drops  off.  At  the  age  of  five  the  boys 
are  taught  to  ride,  and  at  seven  years  old  boys  are  quite 
capable  of  riding  the  horses  to  pasture.  The  children's 
games  are  generally  imitation  of  the  lives  of  their  elders, 
raids,  sheep  lifting,  camping,  etc.,  and  so  from  tenderest 
youth  Bedouins  learn  patiently  to  endure  hunger,  thirst, 
cold  and  heat.  When  the  cold  makes  them  shiver,  the 
children  are  comforted  by  being  told  that  the  rainy  sea- 
son will  bring  grass  and  plenty  of  fresh  camel's  milk; 
when  they  languish  with  heat  the  prospect  of  the  sweet 


136         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

dates  that  can  ripen  only  under  such  a  sun  is  held  out  to 
them. 

Boys  of  ten  and  twelve  take  part  in  hunting  expeditions 
and  even  raids.  Sixteen  or  seventeen  is  not  considered 
too  young  for  a  boy  to  be  married,  and  girls  are  often 
mothers  at  the  age  of  thirteen.  Accustomed  in  this  way 
to  a  life  of  simplicity  and  hardship,  the  Arab  looks  for 
nothing  better.  When  told  of  the  glories  of  civilised 
Europe,  his  first  question  is  of  the  quality  and  price  of 
dates,  and  when  he  finds  that  they  do  not  grow  there,  he 
takes  no  further  interest  in  Europe  or  civilisation.  But 
what  a  Bedouin  does  appreciate  and  cling  to  is  personal 
liberty.  His  home  is  the  boundless  desert.  When  he 
finds  himself  in  a  city  he  becomes  bewildered  and  both  he 
and  his  horse  and  camel  are  timid  and  suspicious.  On 
approaching  a  town  with  its  close  evil  smells,  the  Bedouin 
begins  his  preparations  by  stuffing  his  nostrils  with  grass. 
His  camel  stops  short  and  obstinately  refuses  to  enter  the 
great  city  gate,  while  his  horse  shies  at  every  open  door- 
way, and  the  Bedouin  hurries  to  finish  his  business  and 
hie  him  back  to  his  native  desert. 

Polygamy  is  rarer  among  Bedouins  than  among  indus- 
trial Arabs ;  on  account  of  the  poverty  of  the  former  such 
a  luxury  is  only  within  the  means  of  the  rich,  and  the 
sheikhs  have  generally  several  wives.  Each  tent  has  a 
portion  partitioned  off  for  the  women,  while  each  wife 
of  the  richer  Arab  has  a  tent  to  herself.  Divorces  are 
frequent  and  given  on  the  grounds  generally  admitted  by 
Mohammedans.  The  husband  has  almost  unlimited  lib- 
erty of  divorcing  his  wife  at  will,  while  it  is  almost  im- 
possible for  a  woman  to  obtain  a  divorce  owing  to  the  con- 
ditions laid  down.  The  husband  is  obliged  to  pay  the 
sum  that  was  named  in  the  marriage  contract,  and  this 
being  done,  he  is  quite  free  from  any  ill  feeling  or  re- 
prisal on  the  part  of  her  family.  Unfaithfulness  to  her 


BEDOUINS  137 

marriage  vows  on  the  part  of  the  wife  gives  the  husband 
the  right  of  punishment.  He  may  even  kill  his  wife 
without  any  fear  of  legal  consequences,  though  the  rela- 
tives of  his  wife  may  take  up  the  blood  feud. 

How  does  the  Bedouin  exist?  Mostly  on  what  is 
yielded  by  the  camel,  or,  more  properly,  the  she-camel, 
who  has  fed  him  from  childhood.  She  gives  him  food, 
drink,  clothing  and  all  the  necessities  of  his  simple  house- 
keeping, tents,  string,  ropes,  made  from  camel's  hair,  and 
even  fuel.  Only  thanks  to  the  she-camel  can  the  Bedouin 
keep  horses,  for  the  mares  and  colts  could  not  survive 
without  her  milk.  Thanks  to  them  only  can  the  Bedouin 
make  his  long  journey  through  waterless  wastes,  carry 
out  raids  and  hunting  expeditions,  and  thanks  to.  them  he 
may  even  become  comparatively  rich.  Further,  the  Bed- 
ouin lives  on  what  the  meagre  desert  gives  him,  locusts, 
"  samkh  "  and  "  meza'a  "  that  grow  in  the  desert.  Hunt- 
ing with  greyhounds  and  hawks  also  helps  to  fill  the 
Arab's  pot,  but  this,  of  course,  is  only  for  the  rich.  The 
poorer  Arabs  snare  the  animals  at  their  drinking  places. 
In  this  way  they  get  wild  cows,  gazelles,  and,  in  mountain- 
ous places,  wild  sheep.  Ostriches  are  to  be  found  in  the 
Nefuds,  and  in  Irak  and  Shamiya  "  duradji"  (a  kind  of 
partridge).  Also  a  bird  somewhat  like  it,  called  in  Per- 
sia "  bagrikara,"  black-breast,  that  is  to  be  found  in  great 
abundance  in  Arabia  during  the  winter  months.  The 
Arabian  greyhounds  are  fair  specimens  of  their  race. 
They  resemble  those  kept  by  the  Turkomans  in  Trans- 
caspia,  being,  however,  somewhat  smaller.  The  hawks 
are  of  various  breeds.  With  the  larger  variety  gazelles 
are  chased,  while  the  smaller  ones  are  used  for  birds. 
Among  the  semi-nomadic  tribes  sheep  are  a  great  sup- 
port. They  too  can  go  long  without  water.  In  the 
spring,  when  the  grass  is  juicy,  they  are  only  watered  once 
in  several  days.  During  the  hot  season  thej;  can,  in  ex- 


138        UFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

treme  cases,  go  forty-eight  hours  without  drink.  This 
characteristic  is  also  possessed  by  the  sheep  in  Shakhse- 
wan,  in  Persia,  which  winter  in  the  Mugan  steppe.  An- 
other source  of  income  is  the  occasional  sale  of  a  three- 
year-old  colt  to  Persians  or  Arabs  who  come  to  the  camp 
for  this  purpose.  The  price  of  colts  is  high  and  a  Bedouin 
who  has  one  or  more  to  sell  makes  enough  to  carry  him 
through  the  year.  A  lucky  raid  may  also  enrich  an  Arab. 
This  last  is  a  risky  means  of  livelihood,  depending  upon 
his  own  skill  and  the  swiftness  of  his  horse,  and  in  cases 
of  failure  the  Bedouin  may  lose  his  all  and  his  life  into 
the  bargain.  Among  hostile  tribes  sheep  lifting  is  also 
practised.  A  band  generally  creeps  up  to  the  flock  and 
falls  upon  the  shepherd,  whom  they  either  kill  or  leave 
tied  up.  Then  the  flock  is  broken  up  into  several  small 
bunches  and  driven  off  in  different  directions  to  make  pur- 
suit difficult.  Another  method  of  sheep  lifting  is  based 
on  the  well-known  stupidity  of  sheep,  that  can  be  made  to 
follow  the  object  that  has  frightened  them.  Several 
horsemen  charge  a  flock,  that  immediately  bunches  to- 
gether. One  of  the  riders  then  forces  his  way  into  the 
midst  of  them,  fires  his  gun  into  the  air  and  then  dashes 
out  and  sets  off  over  the  plain,  all  the  sheep  after  him. 
The  other  horsemen  follow  in  the  rear  and  on  the  flanks. 
When  the  excitement  of  the  stampede  subsides  and  the 
sheep  begin  to  weaken  in  their  awkward  gallop,  the  same 
maneuvre  is  repeated,  and  again  the  sheep  run  with  re- 
newed energy.  In  this  way  they  can  be  forced  to  run 
many  miles  at  a  gait  seemingly  incredible  for  sheep.  The 
very  same  trick  is  employed  by  the  Turkomans  and  by 
the  Beluchis,  who  wander  with  their  flocks  up  into  Kho- 
rasan  in  Persia.  But,  aside  from  such  comparatively 
easy  ways  of  driving  off  flocks,  the  Bedouins  engage  in 
more  serious  raids,  "  ghazus,"  where  they  have  battles  on 
a  small  scale,  which  battles  are  generally  remarkable  for 


BEDOUINS  139 

the  small  amount  of  blood  spilled,  in  spite  of  much  noise. 
The  more  serious  ghazus  are  usually  brought  about  by 
some  wrong  that  has  been  done  by  a  hostile  tribe — the 
stealing  of  horses  or  camels,  robbing  a  night  traveller  or 
perhaps  carrying  off  a  maiden.  In  such  cases  there  is  an 
effort  made  at  first  to  come  to  a  peaceable  settlement  of 
the  quarrel.  An  envoy  is  sent,  chosen  from  the  most  elo- 
quent and  prudent  of  the  tribe.  In  case  of  his  failure  a 
council  is  held.  The  strength  of  the  enemy  is  considered 
and  weighed  against  their  own  fighting  contingent.  The 
chances  of  allied  tribes  joining  to  help  them  is  noted. 
The  messengers  are  sent  to  such  tribes  asking  for  their 
aid.  In  the  meantime  provisions  are  laid  in,  arms  and 
saddles  are  overhauled  and  horses  trained.  As  has  been 
said,  only  thoroughbreds  are  taken,  the  best  mares  of  the 
tribe,  for  as  the  proverb  runs,  "  Poor  horses  will  in  the 
day  of  battle  ruin  their  masters."  Horses  are  used  only 
during  the  actual  fighting,  the  journey  being  made  on 
camels,  the  horses  being  led  until  the  enemy  is  in  sight. 
Generally  only  the  men  go  on  the  ghazu,  but  occasionally 
the  whole  encampment  moves.  At  such  times  the  loaded 
camels,  women  and  children  follow  in  the  rear,  protected 
by  riders  who  also  serve  as  reserves. 

Women  ride,  one  or  more  on  a  camel,  and  the  richer 
have  "howdahs"  or  sort  of  palanquin  on  the  camel's 
back.  This  is  formed  by  four  upright  poles  being  fas- 
tened for  an  awning  to  the  saddle.  These  poles  and  the 
top  are  adorned  as  gaily  as  possible,  and  such  howdahs 
are  the  dream  of  every  desert  girl. 

But  the  enemy,  too,  is  not  napping.  By  means  of 
spies  and  runners  they  follow  each  step  of  the  prepara- 
tions of  the  opposite  party  and  are  seldom  caught  unpre- 
pared. Finally  the  two  opposing  parties  set  out  on  the 
march.  Scouts  ride  ahead,  then  the  chief  fighting  body 
and  finally  the  women,  children  and  camp,  if  such  accom- 


I4o         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

pany  the  ghazu.  As  soon  as  the  enemies  come  in  sight 
of  each  other,  every  warrior  seizes  his  lance  and,  mount- 
ing his  fresh  mare,  the  parties  meet,  but  the  attack  does 
not  begin  at  once.  First  there  is  a  sort  of  exhibition  of 
horsemanship,  galloping  and  curveting  about,  while  a 
steady  string  of  insults  to  the  enemy  and  praise  of  his  own 
tribe,  heroes  and  mares,  is  kept  up.  Sometimes  war 
songs  are  sung.  This  ends  by  the  two  groups  drawing 
nearer,  and  attempts  are  made,  as  they  pass  each  other, 
to  unseat  the  enemy,  in  which  case,  by  the  law  of  the 
desert,  the  riderless  horse  becomes  the  property  of  the 
victor. 

The  unseating  of  the  first  man  serves  as  a  signal  for  the 
general  attack  to  begin.  The  excitement  grows  as  the 
heat  of  battle  increases.  At  first  the  blunt  point  of  the 
lance  is  used,  the  object  being  to  unseat  or  stun  the  oppo- 
nent, but  gradually  the  sharp  point  comes  into  play  and 
finally  firearms  are  resorted  to.  The  wounded  are  car- 
ried to  the  rear,  where  the  women  dress  the  wounds  and 
encourage  them  to  return  to  the  fray.  In  olden  times  the 
fairest  maiden  in  the  tribe  led  the  fighting  party,  seated 
in  a  brightly  adorned  howdah,  chanting  a  battle  song. 
The  person  of  these  maidens  was  always  considered  in- 
violable. At  the  present  time  this  custom  has  ceased  to 
be  followed.  Finally,  when  one  of  the  two  parties  gives 
in,  or  night  ends  the  fight,  both  sides  withdraw  to  their 
base.  Here  the  wounded  and  dead  are  counted,  and  the 
loss  of  the  enemy  considered  and  a  balance  struck.  The 
side  whose  loss  is  heaviest  cannot  be  contented  unless  the 
loss  is  made  even,  or  the  enemy  consents  to  pay  the  differ- 
ence in  "  blood  money."  In  the  former  case  a  blood  feud 
begins.  The  family  of  those  killed  lie  in  wait  for  mem- 
bers of  the  hostile  tribe.  Each  fresh  man  killed  leads  to 
more  bloodshed.  If  the  allied  tribes  had  losses  in  the 
original  fray,  they,  too,  take  part  in  the  blood  feud.  In 


BEDOUINS  141 

this  way  an  impassable  barrier  of  blood  is  raised  between 
the  tribes  that  may  last  for  generations.  No  member  of 
one  tribe  can  pass  through  the  territory  occupied  by  the 
other  without  taking  his  life  in  his  hands,  and  in  this  way 
travelling  in  the  desert  is  very  complicated.  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  find  a  guide  who  has  not  a  blood  feud  with 
some  tribe  or  other,  and  whose  choice  of  routes  must  con- 
sequently be  limited.  Often  elders  of  neutral  tribes  take 
upon  themselves  the  task  of  arbitrators.  Parleyings  be- 
gin, that  drag  through  months.  All  the  losses  from  the 
beginning  are  counted.  The  price  of  blood,  as  based  on 
the  teachings  of  the  Koran,  is  estimated,  payable  in  camels 
or  other  animals.  The  sum  is  approximately  $1,500, 
an  enormous  sum  for  a  Bedouin  to  raise.  In  practice,  to 
make  this  possible  it  is  the  custom  to  set  a  much  higher 
nominal  price  on  each  animal  than  the  real  worth,  so  that 
with  the  sacrifice  of  fewer  camels,  the  sum  named  in  Holy 
Tradition  may  be  obtained.  Then  begins  the  bargaining 
and  a  struggle  takes  place  between  the  passions  of  revenge 
and  cupidity.  Occasionally,  at  the  last  moment,  the 
family  exclaims, "  We  will  not  drink  our  brother's  blood," 
and  all  discussion  is  at  an  end  and  the  blood  feud  goes  on. 
But  more  often,  in  the  end,  the  arbitrators  succeed  in  a 
peaceful  termination  of  the  feud  and  the  price  of  blood  is 
handed  over.  .Generally  all  the  relations  and  often  the 
entire  tribe  of  the  man  killed  are  present  at  the  ceremony 
of  the  paying  of  the  blood  money.  A  peace  contract  is 
made  out  and  usually  vows  of  friendship  are  exchanged 
between  the  hitherto  hostile  tribes.  "  Your  enemies  shall 
be  our  enemies  and  your  friends  our  friends,"  is  the  base 
of  this  alliance.  To  cement  still  further  the  friendship, 
a  marriage  is  arranged  between  the  two  tribes.  Through- 
out the  Moslem  East  intermarrying  is  considered  the  sur- 
est means  of  uniting  two  tribes  or  families  after  a  blood 
feud.  Often  the  sister  of  the  victim  will  marry  her 


LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM  EAST 

brother's  slayer.  Occasionally,  but  rarely,  the  feeling  of 
revenge  gets  the  upper  hand  at  the  last  moment  and  the 
tragedy  continues. 

European  literature  has  idealised  the  Bedouin.  The 
poetic  subject  of  the  chivalrous,  free-born  son  of  the  des- 
ert is  an  enticing  one.  In  actual  fact  the  Bedouins  stand 
on  a  very  low  plane  of  culture.  What  else  can  be  ex- 
pected of  a  man  whose  whole  life  is  passed  in  the  desert, 
who  has  almost  no  religious  ideas  or  beliefs,  whose  ideals 
and  ambitions  rise  no  higher  than  the  camel  and  horse? 
The  poets  sing  of  the  hospitality  of  the  Bedouin.  But 
this  hospitality  is  the  direct  result  of  life  in  the  desert  and 
is  reciprocal.  If  the  Bedouin  were  not  hospitable  and 
refused  to  entertain  the  stranger,  many  travellers  would 
certainly  perish  of  hunger  and  thirst.  To  each  Bedouin 
there  comes  a  time  when  he  is  the  traveller  and  stranger. 
Hospitality  is  a  custom  and  its  limits  are  definitely  de- 
fined. A  guest  may  consider  himself  in  absolute  safety 
so  long  as  he  is  under  the  tent  of  his  host,  but  no  longer. 
And  the  number  of  days  that  a  guest  has  the  right  to  de- 
mand hospitality  is  definitely  limited.  During  this  time 
the  guest  must  put  up  with  the  most  unceremonious  ques- 
tioning and  examination.  I  have  happened  to  be  in 
camps  where  for  the  first  time  the  Arabs  saw  Musco- 
vites, as  they  call  us.  Evidently  their  idea  of  Muscovites 
was  as  of  some  mythical  being,  judging  from  the  surprise 
evinced  when  they  found  that  we  had  two  eyes  and  one 
nose,  in  a  word,  were  human  beings. 

It  would  be  hard  to  find  a  people  whose  life  is  a  series 
of  greater  hardships  and  hunger  than  the  Bedouin.  They 
divide  their  year  into  four  periods  of  three  months  each. 
Of  these,  three  periods  are  more  or  less  famine  months, 
and  only  the  one  spring  period,  the  "  er-rabia,"  presents 
to  the  Arabs  a  comparatively  bearable  existence.  At  this 
time  the  desert  is  covered  with  juicy  grass  and  the  she- 


BEDOUINS  143 

camels,  following  the  plentiful  pasture  independent  of 
wells,  are  in  milk.  Various  edible  herbs,  too,  are  to  be 
found  at  this  time  that  break  the  monotony  of  the  very  lim- 
ited Bedouin  menu.  The  locusts,  too,  can  be  expected  at 
this  season  and  the  Bedouin  eagerly  welcomes  them, 
roasting  on  coals  the  wings  and  hind  legs.  They  also  lay 
in  large  stores  of  dried  locusts  for  the  famine  months. 
Now  the  Bedouin  is,  indeed,  the  lord  of  the  desert,  for, 
owing  to  the  grass,  he  can  roam  at  will,  sure  of  pasture. 
It  is  at  this  time  possible  for  the  Bedouin  to  move  his 
camp  every  three  or  four  days,  according  as  the  camels 
'need  fresh  pasture.  The  time  and  distance  of  the  march 
are  settled  by  common  consent  by  the  sheikh.  The  tents 
or  "beyt"  (houses)  are  quickly  taken  down  and  loaded 
on  to  the  camels,  this  work  being  done  exclusively  by  the 
women,  it  being  considered  beneath  the  dignity  of  the 
lord  of  the  desert  to  stoop  to  such  menial  labour.  The 
process  of  moving  the  camp  is  called  "  rahla."  The 
order  on  the  march  is  invariably  the  same:  the  sheikh 
leads,  with  the  men  of  the  tribe,  followed  by  camels  laden 
with  all  the  simple  household  goods,  on  top  of  which  are 
perched  the  women  and  children.  Most  of  the  women 
have  boxes,  but  few  own  a  box  with  a  lock,  and  those  for- 
tunate women  who  do  possess  such  an  article  hang  the 
key  among  the  other  ornaments  that  are  attached  to  her 
head-dress  and  hang  down  her  back.  Sometimes  to  these 
ornaments,  of  which  they  are  very  proud,  are  added  a 
thimble  and  small  pincers  which  are  used  to  extract 
thorns  from  the  barefooted  family.  While  on  the  march 
the  women  of  various  families  often  mingle  and  chat  as 
they  ride  along  side  by  side.  This  custom  is  not,  however, 
encouraged  by  the  men  folk,  who  wish  the  women  to  save 
their  strength  for  the  hard  work  of  setting  up  the  camp 
on  arriving,  and  besides,  they  say  that  "  anyway  women 
cannot  talk  of  anything  sensible."  During  marches  made 


144         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

in  the  hot  season  Bedouins  always  refrain  from  conver- 
sation, as  it  encourages  thirst. 

Very  young  camels  and  colts  are  carried  in  large  saddle 
bags,  only  the  heads  and  necks  sticking  out  and  swaying 
with  the  long  swinging  strides  of  the  camels.  The  young 
puppies  of  greyhounds,  which  are  greatly  prized,  are 
carried  in  the  same  way.  If  on  the  march  anyone  falls 
behind,  or  loses  the  way,  even  if  it  is  a  child,  no  one  but 
the  immediately  interested  persons  will  pay  any  attention 
or  stop  to  hunt  for  the  missing  one.  The  sick  are  carried 
on  a  sort  of  bed  arranged  on  the  top  of  a  flat  load.  Chil- 
dren dying  on  the  march  are  at  once  buried  by  the  road- 
side, the  shallow  graves  often  being  dug  in  the  sand  with 
tent  poles.  When  an  adult  dies  the  body  is  wrapped 
in  felt  and  if  possible  carried  to  the  common  burial 
ground,  often  at  a  great  distance.  Animals  falling  sick 
are  never  killed,  as  Mohammedans  consider  this  a  sin. 
They  are  left  by  the  roadside  to  die  miserably  of  thirst. 
Occasionally  the  wretched  creatures  drag  after  the  cara- 
van as  far  as  the  next  camping  ground,  but  there  the 
Bedouins  do  not  give  them  drink,  leaving  them  to  suffer 
until  the  end  mercifully  comes.  If  on  a  march  an  oasis 
is  passed  or  a  settlement  of  fellaheen,  a  supply  of  dates  is 
bought  for  winter  use.  To  avoid  extra  weight  these  stores 
are  buried  in  the  sand  to  be  taken  up  when  the  tribe  re- 
turns the  same  way  in  the  autumn.  Such  stores  are  con- 
sidered as  inviolate  and  no  one  dreams  of  stealing  them. 
Sometimes,  when  pressed,  clothing  is  left  on  the  ground 
and  the  owner  is  reasonably  sure  of  finding  it  later  on. 

The  choice  of  a  camping  ground  lies  with  the  sheikh. 
When  he  finds  a  spot  that  satisfies  him  he  sticks  his  long 
spear  in  the  ground,  and  the  head  of  each  family  does  the 
same  on  the  spot  chosen  for  his  tent.  Here  the  duty  of 
the  men  ceases.  As  the  caravan  comes  up,  each  woman 
finding  her  husband's  spear,  sets  to  work  with  the  chil- 


BEDOUINS  145 

dren  and  other  women  of  the  family,  and  in  a  wonder- 
fully short  time  the  new  camp  is  erected,  and  life  goes  on 
as  usual  until  the  new  "  rahla." 

The  tents  of  the  Bedouins  are  woven  of  camel's  hair  or 
of  sheep's  wool  and  are  exceedingly  durable,  becoming 
stronger  and  lighter  with  time  and  lasting  for  more  than 
a  generation.  All  the  wool  produced  by  the  Bedouin 
goes  for  his  own  use  and  is  not  an  item  of  export.  The 
men's  part  of  the  tent  has  its  shady  side  open,  and  any- 
one is  at  liberty  to  enter.  The  women's  half  is  partitioned 
off,  but  the  richer  families  have  separate  tents  for  the 
harem. 

All  the  household  furnishings  of  the  Bedouin,  except 
the  most  necessary  metal  utensils,  are  home-made.  Even 
their  dyes  are  made  by  themselves.  The  bright  purple, 
a  very  durable  dye,  is  prepared  from  a  certain  fungus 
boiled  in  camel's  urine. 

During  the  spring  months  when  milk  is  plentiful  the 
women  lay  in  a  supply  of  dried  milk,  which  is  one  of  the 
staple  articles  of  diet  and  indeed  sometimes  the  only  food 
during  the  "  hunger  months."  This  dried  milk  is  called 
"  merinie "  and  under  another  name  is  found  in  Persia, 
even  in  towns  and  villages,  for  winter  use.  It  is  made 
from  curdled  milk  which  is  strained,  pressed  and  made 
into  small  balls  and  then  dried  in  the  sun.  These  keep 
through  the  months  that  the  camels  are  not  in  milk.  The 
dry  balls  are  crushed  and  stirred  in  water,  thus  furnish- 
ing a  sort  of  sour  milk  which  is  used  alone  or  in  cooking 
any  flour  or  grain  they  may  have. 

The  close  of  the  spring  season  marks  the  end  of  any- 
thing like  a  bearable  existence.  The  summer,  "  el-hayt," 
autumn, "  esesf  er,"  and  winter, "  esh-sheta,"  may  be  called 
famine  months,  for  the  Bedouin  is  never  satisfied  during 
this  long  period.  His  hardships  increase  as  the  dry  sea- 
son advances,  until  the  last  months  are,  as  the  Arabs  say, 


146        LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST, 

"  mysil-el-maat,"  "  like  unto  death."  At  this  season  even 
the  rich  Bedouin  is  half  hungry,  and  that  the  poor  survive 
at  all  is  due  to  their  extraordinary  power  of  endurance. 
The  Bedouin  now  draws  his  belt  tight,  and  lying  on  his 
stomach  to  ease  the  pangs  of  hunger,  sleeps  all  day  wait- 
ing for  his  meagre  supper,  his  one  meal  at  the  worst 
period. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  desert  rise  early,  before  the  sun. 
The  women  at  once  prepare  their  simple  breakfast,  con- 
sisting of  milk  or  curds  in  the  springtime  and  the  rest  of 
the  year  of  dried  milk  or  locusts,  or  a  handful  of  pressed 
dates  rubbed  up  in  water.  Most  of  the  day  is  spent  by  the 
women  in  sleeping  or  in  sitting  in  the  sheikh's  tent,  which 
serves  as  a  kind  of  club.  Here  the  latest  desert  news  is 
discussed,  quarrels  are  settled,  the  various  interests  of  the 
tribe  discussed,  etc.  To  each  person  half  a  tiny  cup  of 
sugarless  coffee  is  served,  two  swallows,  not  more.  This 
coffee  is  in  fact  the  chief  magnet  drawing  people  to  the 
sheikh's  tent.  In  this  way  the  morning  is  passed  until 
midday,  when  all  scatter  for  their  afternoon  nap,  to  rise 
an  hour  before  sunset,  as  it  is  considered  injurious  to  sleep 
near  sundown.  After  this  siesta  the  men  again  betake 
themselves  to  the  sheikh's  tent  for  the  one  homeopathic 
portion  of  coffee.  However  poor,  the  Bedouin  has  a 
small  provision  at  least  of  unturned  coffee.  Coffee  is 
freshly  browned  just  before  using,  pounded  in  a  wooden 
mortar  and  cooked  over  the  coals.  A  very  small  amount 
of  coffee  is  used,  the  beans  being  counted,  and  the  grounds 
that  remain  are  added  to  the  fresh  brew  next  time.  Just 
before  sunset  the  she-camels  are  driven  in  and  after  giving 
them  an  hour's  rest  the  women  milk  them.  Camels  are  in 
milk  eleven  months,  but  of  course  the  quantity  given  de- 
creases progressively  with  the  dry  season.  The  mares 
are  tied  to  the  women's  tents  and  the  desert  rings  with  the 
whinnying  of  boh  mares  and  colts  in  expectation  of  milk 


BEDOUINS  147 

as  the  camels  are  driven  up.  The  camels  are  milked  into 
large  wooden  bowls  and  the  mares  and  colts  get  their  por- 
tion first,  then  the  children  are  fed  (from  the  same  un- 
washed bowl,  of  course)  and  the  rest  goes  to  the  simple 
supper  of  the  adults  and  for  making  curds.  As  soon  as 
the  darkness  sets  in  the  men  light  fires,  as  the  nights  are 
chilly  on  the  Arabian  plateau,  often  3,000  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  fires  are  made  from  brushwood  gathered  dur- 
ing the  day  by  the  women.  In  getting  the  fuel  the  women 
are  careful  not  to  touch  anything  that  the  camels  can  eat. 
Around  these  fires  the  Bedouins  sprawl  with  their  heads 
towards  the  fire,  flat  on  their  stomachs,  as  said  before,  to 
alleviate  the  ever-present  pangs  of  hunger.  Now  begins 
the  endless  talk  of  the  desert  life,  stories  of  ghazus,  of 
ghosts  and  mysterious  unseen  inhabitants  of  the  desert. 
An  hour  or  two  is  spent  in  this  way,  and  then  each  goes 
to  his  tent,  where  the  same  meagre  supper  as  his  morn- 
ing's breakfast  awaits  him,  and  the  Bedouin  day  is  over. 

At  night  the  Bedouin  sleeps  little  and  very  lightly,  being 
always  on  the  watch  for  a  night  attack.  The  quiet  of  the 
night  is  only  broken  by  the  occasional  barking  of  the 
hounds  if  wolves  are  prowling  about.  If  a  sheep  is  car- 
ried off  by  these  marauders,  severe  as  the  loss  is  to  the 
poor  Bedouin,  he  takes  it  with  wonderful  philosophy, 
comforting  himself  that  it  was  "  kismet." 

If,  as  seen  above,  the  male  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  desert  is  hungry,  the  women  fare  even  worse.  The 
men  at  least  have  a  few  swallows  of  coffee  during  the  day 
in  the  sheikh's  tent,  or  being  far  away  from  the  camp, 
sometimes  according  to  desert  custom  go  up  to  the  herds 
and  get  a  drop  of  milk.  During  the  famine  months  the 
Bedouin  eats  anything  that  can  possibly  be  eaten;  birds 
of  prey  that  live  on  carrion,  lizards,  foxes7  and  wolves' 
flesh.  "What  we  cannot  ourselves  eat  we  give  to  the 
harem — the  harem  can  eat  everything,"  say  the  Arabs. 


148        LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

To  the  suffering  that  habitually  comes  to  the  Bedouin 
from  hunger,  taking  as  he  does  nourishment  in  quantities 
barely  sufficient  to  keep  body  and  soul  together,  must 
often  be  added  thirst.  During  the  dry  season  they  depend 
upon  what  water  there  is  remaining  in  wells  or  hollows. 
In  these  places  they  water  their  cattle  and  in  spite  of  the 
remonstrances  of  the  sheikh  perform  the  ablutions  de- 
manded before  prayer.  The  water  in  the  pools  becomes 
therefore  so  foul  that  linen  washed  in  it  becomes  brown. 
But  the  Bedouin  is  thankful  for  even  such  water,  using  it 
with  the  greatest  economy  and  refraining  from  one  un- 
necessary swallow. 

They  are  equally  economical  in  watering  their  beasts. 
In  the  hot  season  the  camels  are  watered  once  in  three 
days,  sheep  and  asses  every  other  day  and  only  the  horses 
get  two  drinks  daily.  In  the  autumn  and  winter  months 
camels  are  watered  once  in  five  days,  while  sheep  and 
donkeys  get  water  every  two  days.  During  the  spring 
months  the  camels  are  not  watered  at  all,  the  juicy  pas- 
turage being  sufficient.  Such  training  naturally  results 
in  the  camels  being  as  enduring  as  their  masters,  capable 
of  sustaining  great  fatigue  and  thirst.  A  pacing  drome- 
dary in  good  condition  can  on  short  distances  run  130 
versts1  in  twenty-four  hours.  On  journeys  of  a  week  it 
can  keep  up  an  average  of  90  versts,  and  for  a  two  weeks' 
march  it  has  been  known  to  make  80  versts  in  the 
twenty-four  hours.  It  is  wonderful  how  the  camels 
can  keep  up  their  speed  getting  only  such  food  as  the 
desert  provides  during  the  short  hours  of  rest  and  re- 
ceiving water  but  once  in  three  to  four  days.  During 
such  long  marches  the  hump  becomes  small  and  flabby, 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  camel  depends  on  the  fat 
of  his  hump  to  give  it  nourishment. 

Considering  the  life  of  the  Bedouins  it  is  not  surprising 

1 1  verst  equals  f  of  a  mile. 


O 
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O 


BEDOUINS  149 

that  there  is  a  great  deal  of  disease  of  the  digestive  organs 
to  be  found  among  them.  Smallpox  and  other  kindred 
epidemics  create  a  panic  among  the  simple  desert  folk 
so  great  as  to  cause  them  occasionally  to  abandon  their 
sick.  Vaccination  is  known  among  the  Bedouins  and 
gladly  resorted  to  when  opportunity  affords.  Cholera  also 
often  carries  off  many  victims.  Although  eye  diseases 
are  very  prevalent,  the  eyesight  of  the  Bedouin  is  gener- 
ally remarkable.  "  I  see  Zal,"  a  Bedouin  will  say,  mean- 
ing a  formless  something  in  the  distance,  whether  bush, 
rider  or  beast  he  cannot  yet  say,  and  which  a  European 
will  only  just  perceive  after  half  an  hour's  camel  walk. 
And  even  then  what  to  the  foreigner  is  a  formless  object 
can  by  the  Arab  be  distinguished  as  a  certain  animal,  the 
very  colour  of  which  he  can  give. 

The  women  generally  play  the  part  of  physician,  and 
strange  are  the  remedies  often  employed  by  them.  Amu- 
lets and  charms  fill  an  important  place  in  their  pharma- 
copoeia. Actual  cautery  is  the  main  remedy,  and  it  is 
freely  used  for  every  imaginable  pain  or  ache,  and  hardly 
an  Arab  can  be  found  who  does  not  bear  its  marks.  The 
"  evil  eye "  and  witchcraft,  too,  are  believed  in.  When 
an  Arab  is  dying  his  friend  or  near  relation  begins  to  sing 
in  a  loud  voice  to  frighten  away  death.  If  possible  the 
funeral  takes  place  the  same  day  that  death  occurs. 
Owing  to  the  absence  of  spades  graves  are  dug  with  tent 
pegs  and  are  therefore  very  shallow.  The  day  after  the 
funeral  a  sacrifice,  "kurban,"  is  offered.  A  sheep  or  a 
camel,  according  to  the  means  of  the  family,  is  killed  and 
the  whole  tribe  invited  to  take  part  in  the  "  kurban " 
feast.  This,  however,  is  not  done  in  the  case  of  a  wo- 
man's death. 

Sacrifices  of  this  kind  have  a  large  place  in  the  life  of 
the  Bedouins  from  the  rare  red-letter  days  on  which  they 
get  a  full  meal.  These  sacrifices  or  general  feasts  take 


150         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

place  on  the  occasion  of  the  birth  of  a  son,  circumcision, 
or  after  the  successful  return  from  a  "  ghazu,"  a  marriage, 
recovery  from  severe  illness,  or  the  arrival  of  a  guest. 
When  a  stranger  arrives  in  camp  and  enters  a  tent  the  host 
asks  no  questions  until  he  has  fed  the  guest  with  whatever 
God  has  given  him,  even  if  it  is  the  last  he  has. 

This  is  a  sacredly  observed  custom.  The  Bedouins  say, 
"  In  this  world  we  are  all  strangers  and  travellers,  Allah's 
guests,  and  if  we  are  not  hospitable  to  others  Allah  will 
refuse  us  his  hospitality."  This  idea  is  the  mainspring 
of  the  practical  form  that  hospitality  takes  in  the  desert. 

Camel's  milk  is  first  offered  to  the  weary  guest  and  is 
called  "  kheyr  Allah,"  God's  gift.  In  passing  I  will  men- 
tion that  camel's  milk  is  easily  assimilated  in  the  stomach, 
but  gives  colic  to  those  unaccustomed  to  it  if  taken  in  con- 
siderable quantities.  Coffee  follows,  prepared  by  the  host 
himself  if  there  is  water  to  be  had  in  the  camp.  Only 
half  a  cup  is  offered,  as  it  is  not  considered  polite  to  fill 
the  cup,  which  would  be  a  hint  to  the  guest  that  after 
drinking  it  he  might  depart.  If  the  guest  arrives  in  the 
morning  he  gets  the  usual  breakfast  of  sour  milk  with 
perhaps  the  addition  of  dates  in  water.  When  the  meal 
is  served  the  host  says,  "  Eat,  and  may  Allah  give  you 
life."  The  real  Bedouin  will  not  rise  until  all  have 
finished.  The  guest  at  the  end  of  the  repast  generally 
says,  "Umnaat  Allah  aleika  ia  myateb"  ("May  God's 
blessing  rest  upon  thee,  oh  my  host").  The  supper  consists 
of  the  same  food  as  the  breakfast,  and  if  the  guest  is  to 
leave  the  next  day  it  is  not  the  custom  to  feed  him  in  the 
morning.  Sometimes  the  hostess  may  give  the  departing 
guest  just  a  handful  of  dates  for  the  road.  Hospitality 
is  obligatory  for  three  days.  Sometimes  a  passing  stran- 
ger may  leave  some  of  his  belongings  with  his  host,  and 
on  his  return  he  is  sure  of  finding  everything  as  he  left  it. 

When  an  honoured  guest  arrives  his  entertainment  is 
the  duty  of  the  sheikh,  who  invites  the  entire  tribe  to  take 


BEDOUINS 

part  in  the  evening's  feast,  a  camel  or  sheep  being  slaugh- 
tered for  the  occasion.  As  soon  as  the  beast  is  killed  and 
skinned  the  meat  is  cut  up  roughly  and  thrown  into  a  huge 
cauldron  of  water,  where  it  boils  without  any  seasoning. 
When  the  meat  is  sufficiently  cooked  it  is  turned  out  onto 
large  wooden  trays  and  carried  into  the  tent,  where  all 
those  invited  are  already  assembled.  The  host  makes  the 
guest  move  with  the  word  "Tafaddaln"  (welcome) ;  all 
sit  around  and  dig  into  the  huge  pile,  using  their  fingers 
instead  of  knives  and  forks.  In  a  short  time  little  remains 
but  half-cleaned  bones.  Women  are  not  present  at  these 
feasts  and  have  to  content  themselves  with  what  is  left. 

Aside  from  the  duties  of  hospitality,  those  of  judge  lie 
upon  the  sheikh.  Most  crimes  are  punished  by  the  pay- 
ment of  a  certain  number  of  animals.  Anyone  failing  to 
consent  to  the  decision  of  the  sheikh  is  expelled  from  the 
tribe.  Sometimes  a  case  is  settled  by  means  of  an  oath. 
The  most  sacred  oath  is  taken  over  a  circle  drawn  in  the 
ashes  of  a  fire.  Inside  this  circle  is  drawn  a  cross.  After 
this  oath  the  case  is  considered  settled. 

The  Arab  women,  as  in  all  Mohammedan  communities, 
occupy  an  inferior  position.  The  number  of  girls  born, 
so  far  as  can  be  judged,  exceeds  that  of  boys.  The  birth 
of  a  son  is  an  occasion  for  rejoicing  and  congratulation. 
The  birth  of  a  girl  is  not  even  a  subject  to  be  mentioned. 
The  women  of  the  tribe  visit  the  mother  and  condole  with 
her  on  such  an  event,  comforting  her  with  the  assurance 
that  it  is  Allah's  will  and  she  must  bow  to  the  rod  of  "  kis- 
met." A  girl  is  looked  upon  as  a  burden,  an  extra  mouth 
to  feed  until  she  can  be  married  off.  No  wonder  then 
that  in  the  prehistoric  days  Arabs  killed  the  extra  female 
babies.  If  a  woman  bear  only  girls,  or  is  childless,  the 
husband  if  poor  divorces  her,  or  keeps  her  if  he  has 
means,  while  adding  another  wife.  A  divorced  wife  leads 
a  miserable  life  until  she  marries  some  inferior  person. 
In  case  of  harsh  treatment  a  wife  takes  refuge  with  her 


152        LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM  EAST 

parents  or  friends  and  the  husband  has  no  right  to  touch 
her.  The  case  then  has  to  be  settled  by  emissaries,  the 
guest  or  a  friend  being  chosen  as  mediator.  Women 
have  even  less  idea  of  religion  than  men  and  very  seldom 
pray. 

The  low  condition  of  women  in  the  Islamic  countries 
was  based  upon  what  was  found  in  Arabia  before  the  Mo- 
hammedan conquest. 

The  Arabs'  estimate  of  women  is  clearly  to  be  found 
in  the  terms  used  to  describe  the  sex.  Among  them  are 
words  that  later  became  used  in  other  Eastern  tongues 
spoken  by  those  adopting  the  Mohammedan  religion. 
As  for  instance,  "  saif,"  weak,  "  nisa,"  the  forgetful,  and 
for  an  elderly  woman,  "  a'djuss,"  characterless,  strength- 
less,  incapable.  Further,  in  the  very  names  of  women  the 
same  idea  may  be  traced.  Names  are  chosen  for  girls 
from  the  vegetable  kingdom,  qualities  ror  even  incidents, 
as  "  Selma,"  peace,  "  Hamdie,"  praise,  "  Kotra,"  born  in 
the  green  month,  "Vateyna,"  born  in  rain,  "Yabera," 
patience,  "  Umm-es-suf,"  month  of  wool,  "  Fuddja," 
pleasant,  "  Howsha,"  scold. 

In  all  my  travels  in  the  Moslem  East,  among  the  moun- 
tains of  Kurdistan,  the  plains  of  Persia,  along  the  Afghan 
frontier,  in  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia,  among  the  Alai 
Kirghizes,  nowhere  have  I  found  such  a  depth  of  poverty, 
misery  and  hardships  as  I  saw  among  the  Bedouins.  And 
yet  to  them  the  desert  is  as  dear  as  are  the  smiling  gardens 
of  Persia  to  the  Persian,  or  the  glorious  mountains  of 
Kurdistan  and  Central  Asia  to  the  Kurds  and  Kirghizes. 
I  have  even  known  cases  where  the  Bedouins  had  the  op- 
portunity of  living  in  easy  circumstances  in  the  towns  but 
to  whom  the  "  call  of  the  desert "  was  louder  than  any 
bodily  comfort,  and  they  returned  to  their  state  of  chronic 
hunger  and  thirst.  But  they  had  the  prkeless  gifts  of 
freedom  and  space. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  ARAB  HORSE   IN  ITS  NATIVE  LAND 

Horses  of  Arab  Descent  in  Europe  and  Asia — Why  Arabia  Produces 
The  Finest  Horses  in  the  World — The  Horse's  Power  of  Adapting 
Itself  to  its  Food — Points  of  a  Bedouin's  Horse — Limitation — Im- 
possibility of  Buying  Thoroughbred  Mares — Proverbs — Mares 
Owned  in  Shares — The  Natural  Conditions  of  a  Horse's  Life — The 
Origin  of  the  Arab  Horse — Are  there  Many  Thoroughbred  Arab 
!Horses  in  Arabia? — Subdivisions  of  Breeds — Examples  of  the  Bed- 
ouin's Estimation  of  his  Horse's  Genealogy — "  Shammarie,"  the 
Pearl  of  the  Desert — Hunting  the  Wild  Ass — Our  Wild  Ass  in 
Meshed — Endurance  of  the  Arab  Horse — The  Bedouin  as  a  Rider — 
Colour  of  Horses — Points — Defects — Length  of  Hbrse  Life — Bed- 
ouins' Treatment  of  the  Horse — Our  Arab  Horses  in  Bagda'd — 
Hkmdanie,  Seglawie  and  Rishan — Personal  Observations. 

IF  Arabia  may  not  be  termed  the  home  of  the  Arab  horse 
in  the  sense  of  its  being  the  place  where  the  animal  lived 
in  its  wild  state,  still  it  is  an  undisputed  fact  that  the  best 
races  of  trotting  horses  in  Europe  are  of  Arabian  descent. 
How  the  Arab  horse  came  into  Europe  and  how  various 
breeds  were  developed  from  it  there,  is  well  known  to  all 
who  are  interested  in  horse  breeding.  But  more  than  this, 
the  best  horses  of  the  East  can  boast  the  same  origin, 
thanks  to  Shah  Abbas,  who  reigned  in  Persia  from  1585  to 
1628.  By  his  orders  Arab  horses  were  distributed  as  fol- 
lows throughout  his  kingdom,  which  then  extended  from 
the  Tigris  to  India:  One  stud  was  established  in  Kurdis- 
tan, one  in  Shiraz  and  one  in  Karabagh,  then  a  Per- 
sian province.  A  fourth  was  placed  in  what  is  at  present 
known  as  Transcaspia.  From  these  Arabs  descended  the 

153 


154         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM    EAST 

breeds  now  known  as  Kurdistan,  Shiraz,  Karabagh  and 
Turkoman. 

The  natural  question  that  presents  itself  to  one's  mind 
is,  Why  did  Arabia  give  the  best  horse  to  the  world?  Is 
it  because  the  climate  and  other  local  conditions  devel- 
oped them,  or  is  there  some  other  explanation?  The  first 
question  has  to  be  answered  negatively,  as  the  first  con- 
ditions of  successful  horse  breeding,  good  pasture  and 
abundance  of  water,  are  lacking  in  Arabia.  Good  pasture 
is  to  be  found  in  the  Yemen  and  in  parts  of  Arabia  occa- 
sionally, and  then  only  during  the  rainy  season,  which  lasts 
two  or  three  months.  During  the  remaining  months  of 
the  year  the  desolate  wastes  of  Arabia  are  covered  with 
little  but  the  cactus  and  tamarisks.  Of  water,  except  in 
the  regions  bordering  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  there  is 
even  less  to  be  said.  Further,  the  Arab  horse  is  unac- 
quainted with  barley,  their  universal  food  in  other  parts 
of  the  East.  Camel's  milk  in  the  earlier  days  of  their 
lives,  dried  locusts,  and  in  the  regions  bordering  the  sea, 
dried  fish;  a  handful  of  stoned  dates  now  and  then, — these 
represent  the  main  articles  of  food  for  the  Bedouin  and 
his  horse.  In  the  Nefuds,  as  we  have  seen,  the  mares  are 
turned  loose  in  the  spring,  each  colt  receiving  in  addition 
to  its  mother's  milk  that  of  one  she-camel.  If  the  pasture 
land  is  not  too  far  distant  the  mares  are  driven  to  the 
camp  in  the  evening.  The  camels  are  then  milked  and 
first  the  colts  and  afterwards  the  mares  and  children  are 
given  a  drink.  If  a  horse  can  exist  at  all  under  such  con- 
ditions it  is  owing  to  great  care  and  then  to  its  wonderful 
adaptability  to  all  sorts  of  diet,  including  animal  food. 
Before  the  conquest  of  Transcaspia  the  Turkomans  on 
their  raids  were  in  the  habit  of  taking  with  them  a  supply 
of  mutton  fat,  which  from  time  to  time  they  gave  in  small 
quantities  to  their  horses,  on  which  they  made  as  many  as 
100  versts  in  twenty-four  hours. 


ARAB   HORSE  IN  ITS  NATIVE  LAND     155 

It  is  just  these  conditions,  seemingly  so  unsuitable,  that 
created  the  Arab  horse.  Forcing  the  Bedouin  to  care  for 
his  steed  above  himself,  it  is  the  result  of  careful  bringing 
up,  training  and  skilful  selection. 

As  soon  as  a  colt  is  born  it  is  turned  over  to  the  care  of 
the  women.  Its  ears  are  tied  to  make  them  stand  as  close 
together  as  possible,  a  mark  of  beauty  according  to  the 
Arab  idea.  Horses  bought  of  Bedouins  always  have  a 
fine  scar  at  the  root  of  the  ears — the  trace  of  the  cord 
tied  there  when  a  colt.  These  scars  are  often  artificially 
made  by  the  "  Jambazes "  or  horse  dealers  buying  animals 
for  export  to  India,  so  as  to  sell  city-bred  horses  as  having 
been  bought  of  Bedouins. 

During  the  heat  of  the  day  the  colt  is  allowed  the  cool- 
est spot  in  the  tents,  where  he  lies  down  among  the  chil- 
dren, thus  from  earliest  days  becoming  accustomed  to 
human  beings,  recognising  them  as  his  best  friends  and 
learning  to  trust  them.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  foundation 
of  the  wonderful  docility  and  gentleness  of  the  Arab 
breed.  When  the  foal  is  a  month  old  it  is  weaned  and 
brought  up  on  camel's  milk  with  occasionally  a  handful 
of  dates  if  they  are  to  be  had.  In  the  autumn  the  colts 
are  turned  out  to  get  their  own  food,  and  to  prevent  them 
from  straying  they  are  hobbled  with  iron  or  rope  hobbles ; 
the  scars  they  make,  lasting  through  life,  are  regarded  by 
the  buying  public  as  proofs  of  a  horse's  being  desert  born. 
The  "  Jambazes "  have  a  most  cruel  way  of  imitating 
these  marks  by  binding  a  fresh  sheep's  intestine  round  one 
or  both  legs  just  above  the  hock  joint,  so  that  as  it  dries 
it  shall  cut  into  the  flesh.  The  wound  thus  made  is  al- 
lowed to  heal,  leaving  a  scar  covered  with  white  hair  that 
cannot  be  distinguished  from  that  caused  by  the  hobbles. 
Not  only  Indian  buyers  but  even  town  people  in  Turkish 
Arabia  are  often  taken  in  by  the  "  Jambazes "  in  this  way. 

When  the  colt  is  two  years  old  he  is  ridden  by  children, 


LIFE   IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

and  in  his  third  year  he  is  mounted  regularly.  If  the  colt 
does  not  promise  much  by  the  fourth  year  he  is  sold,  ac- 
cording to  the  Arab  proverb : 

"  If  in  the  fourth  year  he  does  not  please,  sell  him  with- 
out hesitation." 

Thoroughbred  mares  are  never  sold  under  any  con- 
dition, and  instances  have  been  known  when  five  and  even 
ten  thousand  pounds  have  been  refused.  Even  such  mares 
as  are  too  old  for  riding  are  still  kept  for  breeding  pur- 
poses. 

The  Arab's  regard  for  his  mare  is  often  expressed  in 
sayings  that  are  short  but  very  much  to  the  point,  as  for 
instance : 

"The  foundation  of  wealth  is  a  mare:  bring  forth  a 
mare." 

"  The  greatest  blessings  are  a  wise  wife  and  a  fruitful 


mare." 


In  olden  times  stealing  a  mare  was  punishable  by  death. 
Sheikhs  own  one  or  more  pure-bred  mares  according  to 
their  position  and  means,  but  it  is  often  the  case  that 
among  the  less  well-to-do  people  a  mare  is  owned  by  sev- 
eral, the  shares  being  clearly  defined  and  the  division  of 
colts  made  according  to  detailed  and  often  complicated 
laws.  Sometimes  one  family  owns  "one  leg,"  while  a 
richer  man  claims  "  two  legs,"  etc. 

This  system  of  owning  a  mare  in  shares  is  found  even 
among  sedentary  Arabs  in  Turkish  Arabia  and  sometimes 
in  the  city  of  Bagdad  itself,  if  any  one  is  fortunate  enough 
to  get  hold  of  a  half-bred  mare. 

The  Arab,  who  is  exceedingly  particular  as  to  the  pur- 
ity of  his  own  genealogical  tree,  is  exceedingly  careful  to 
hold  to  the  same  principle  in  regard  to  his  horse  breed- 
ing. As  the  Arabs  themselves  are  divided  into  tribes  and 
sub-tribes,  the  same  system  is  adopted  in  regard  to  the 
strain  of  their  horses'  breed.  In  fact,  the  breeding  is  car- 


ARAB   HORSE   IN   ITS  NATIVE   LAND     157 

ried  on  in  the  same  manner  as  laid  down  in  the  Koran 
for  Mohammedan  marriages.  This  is  one  of  the  chief 
factors  in  giving  rise  to  the  high  quality  of  the  pure-bred 
Arab  horse. 

Finally,  the  third  condition  towards  the  development 
of  the  peculiar  qualities  of  the  Arabian  horses  is  their 
life  under  the  open  sky,  during  the  hot  summer  day,  dur- 
ing the  rainy  season,  and  during  winter's  icy  winds. 

These  natural  conditions  are  exceedingly  important 
to  the  well  being  of  the  Arab  horse.  While  travelling 
on  the  Pamirs  we  noticed  how  the  stall-fed  horses,  in 
spite  of  the  best  food,  did  not  pick  up  as  rapidly  after  the 
fatigues  of  the  long  march  as  did  the  Kirgie  horses  left 
to  shift  for  themselves  on  the  scant  pasturage,  often 
obliged  to  paw  away  the  snow  to  get  at  their  food.  Stables 
are  the  enemy  of  the  Arab  horse,  and  once  inside  them  he 
quickly  loses  much  of  his  former  qualities,  falls  an  easy 
prey  to  colds  and  skin  diseases,  and  his  endurance  also 
becomes  in  a  great  measure  weakened. 

The  Bedouin  tells  the  following  legend  of  the  creation 
of  the  horse: 

Before  the  creation  of  man  Allah  created  a  mare. 
Causing  the  south  wind  to  condense  he  formed  from  it 
a  bay  mare  with  a  white  star  on  her  forehead.  To  this 
day  bay  horses  with  white  stars  are  the  most  prized  in 
Arabia  and  in  the  Sahara. 

The  Bedouin  says  that  Allah  has  three  great  gifts  to 
mankind,  "  a  good  horse,  a  good  wife  and  a  good  blade."  \[ 

It  is  a  great  mistake,  however,  to  assume  that  every  horse 
found  among  the  Bedouins  is  pure  bred.  A  thoroughbred 
horse  is  not  easy  to  find  in  Arabia,  the  more  so  that  horses 
are  not  as  plentiful  in  that  country  as  is  generally  sup- 
posed. The  traveller  Burckhardt  estimated  that  there 
were  not  more  than  6,000  to  be  found  in  the  whole  of  the 
Syrian  desert.  Between  Mecca  and  Medina,  a  distance 


of  some  300  miles,  the  same  writer  counts  not  more  than 
200  horses,  while  in  Nejd  he  considers  that  the  number 
would  not  be  above  20,000. 

These  figures  are,  of  course,  very  roughly  estimated 
and  serve  merely  as  a  general  basis  proving  the  above 
statement. 

In  addition  to  this  must  be  taken  into  consideration  the 
fact  that  far  from  every  Bedouin  has  a  thoroughbred 
horse.  Such  are  to  be  found  only  in  the  possession  of 
sheikhs  and  rich  Arabs. 

Further,  not  all  thoroughbred  horses  as  found  among 
the  various  tribes  are  of  equal  value.  Each  tribe  has  its 
special  strain.  For  instance,  in  the  oasis  of  El-Hasa  are  to 
be  found  undoubtedly  pure-bred  horses,  but  they  are  far 
inferior  to  those  bred  in  Nejd  or  among  the  Aenizeh  or 
Shammar  tribes.  The  cause  for  this  is  supposed  to  be 
the  difference  in  the  bringing  up  of  the  El-Hasa  horses. 
Here  we  find  fine  pasture,  but  the  absence  of  raids,  which 
develop  the  endurance  of  horses,  leads  to  the  production 
of  a  weak  race.  From  this  we  can  draw  the  general  con- 
clusion that  the  greater  the  hardships  to  which  the  horse 
is  subjected,  making  him  more  dependent  on  man's  help, 
the  better  the  result.  As  proving  the  correctness  of  this 
theory  we  find  the  best  horses  come  from  Nedj,  then  from 
the  Aenizeh  and  finally  from  the  Shammar  tribe.  For 
this  reason  if  a  horse  dealer  gets  an  animal  from  the 
Shammars  he  tries  to  pass  it  off  as  an  Aenizeh  horse, 
whereas  if  he  gets  hold  of  an  Aenizeh-bred  horse  he  calls 
it  Nedj. 

Sometimes,  however,  a  first-class  animal  is  found  where 
least  expected,  and  the  secret  is  a  lucky  ghazu  or  raid. 
Sometimes  an  inferior  tribe  becomes  in  this  way  possessed 
of  a  first-class  mare,  and  thus  improves  the  strain  of  its 
own  horses. 

The  Arabs  trace  their  pure-blood  horses  to  five  mares 


ARAB   HORSE  IN   ITS  NATIVE  LAND     159 

owned  by  the  Prophet  Mohammed.  But  there  is  no 
doubt  that  in  Mohammed's  time  these  five  strains  al- 
ready existed.  They  are  known  under  the  general  name 
of  "  al  hamsa,"  "  the  five."  From  the  names  of  these  five 
mares  come  the  names  of  the  five  chief  strains  of  Arab 
horses,  Kehilan,  Seglawie,  Abeyan,  Hamdanie  and  Had- 
ban,  but  each  of  these  strains  in  course  of  time  has  given 
rise  to  sub-divisions.  For  instance,  the  Kehilan  has  sixty 
sub-strains,  Seglawie  nine,  Abeyan  twelve,  Hamdanie  two 
and  the  Hadban  four,  and  each  of  these  sub-divisions  has 
its  own  name,  probably  from  a  famous  mare,  the  founder 
of  the  line. 

Here  it  should  be  mentioned  that  the  Arabs  attach  more 
importance  to  the  mother's  side  in  tracing  a  pedigree  than 
to  that  of  the  sire. 

The  Arabs  estimate  so  highly  the  purity  of  their  horses' 
breed  that  in  this  one  respect  their  word  can  be  invariably 
relied  upon.  As  an  instance  of  this  can  be  cited  the  case 
of  an  Arab  who,  mortally  wounded  in  a  ghazu,  called  to 
the  victorious  party  to  come  back  and  hear  before  he 
died  the  genealogy  of  his  mare  that  they  had  taken. 
Moreover,  when,  after  a  successful  ghazu,  blood  mares 
have  been  seized  the  winning  party  send  an  envoy,  whose 
person  is  scrupulously  respected,  to  ask  the  original 
owners  to  give  the  pedigree  of  the  mares  taken,  and  this 
is  always  most  conscientiously  done.  An  instance  is  told 
of  an  Arab  who  succeeded  in  stealing  a  valuable  mare 
at  night.  The  master,  aroused,  sprang  upon  another  mare 
and  gave  chase.  The  race  continued  all  night  and  at  day- 
break the  owner  overtook  the  thief  to  such  a  degree  that  he 
could  just  touch  him  with  the  end  of  his  spear,  with  the 
sharp  point  of  which  he  steadily  prodded  the  thief's  back, 
unable,  however,  to  draw  near  enough  to  inflict  a  serious 
wound  or  overpower  him.  This  continued  for  some  time, 
the  unlucky  horse  thief  in  the  meantime  getting  more  than 


160         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

one  score  of  good  pricks,  when  suddenly  he  found  himself 
upon  the  precipitous  banks  of  a  deep  dry  stream.  The 
horse  thief  gave  an  encouraging  shout  and  the  gallant 
mare  rose  like  a  bird  and  cleared  the  obstacle,  whereas 
the  inferior  mare  on  which  the  owner  was  giving  chase 
stopped  short.  Seeing  that  the  game  was  up  he  called  to 
the  thief  to  turn  and  hear  the  pedigree  of  the  "  pearl  of 
the  desert "  that  he  had  won ! 

There  are  mares  whose  fame  has  spread  throughout 
the  entire  desert,  who  are  the  pride  and  wealth  of  the 
tribe  and  for  whom  the  Bedouin  would  sacrifice  himself, 
his  wives  and  children.  There  was  one  such  owned  by  the 
sheikh  of  the  Shammar  tribe,  named  in  honour  of  the  tribe 
"  Shammarie."  Of  her  beauty,  swiftness  and  endurance 
the  whole  desert  rang.  They  positively  declared  that  she 
could  alone  run  down  a  wild  ass.  To  understand  the 
weight  of  this  statement  one  must  be  acquainted  with  the 
manner  of  hunting  these  animals,  whose  fleetness  and  great 
endurance  are  proverbial.  The  wild  ass  is  to  be  found 
in  Irak,  in  the  Senjar  mountains,  and  along  the  Perso- Af- 
ghan frontier,  and  I  am  acquainted  with  this  sport.  When 
a  herd  of  these  animals  is  found  a  number  of  horsemen, 
ten  to  fifteen,  on  the  best  horses  to  be  had,  are  stationed  at 
certain  intervals  along  the  line  of  retreat  that  the  herd 
is  expected  to  take.  When  the  drive  begins  the  first 
horseman  follows  at  full  speed  to  the  point  where  the 
second  man  is  posted  with  a  fresh  horse.  In  this  way 
often  ten  or  more  horses  are  worn  out  before  one  of  the 
young  or  a  mother  who  will  not  forsake  her  colt  is.  run 
down. 

In  passing  I  would  touch  upon  these  beautiful  creatures. 
During  our  sojourn  in  Meshed  a  four-months-old  wild 
ass  was  caught  in  the  above  detailed  manner  and  was 
brought  to  us.  He  was  kept  in  the  stables  with  several 
horses,  but  all  attempts  to  tame  him  were  useless.  He 


kicked  and  bit  those  who  fed  him.  In  the  summer  we 
tied  him  with  a  long  rope  on  the  lawn,  hoping  to  accustom 
him  to  us,  but  as  soon  as  anyone  came  within  range  he 
dashed  forward,  showing  his  teeth  and,  wheeling  with  the 
rapidity  of  lightning,  began  a  volley  of  kicks  that  were 
too  fast  to  be  counted.  When  old  enough  all  efforts  were 
made  to  mount  him,  but  no  one  was  found  who  could  stick 
on  his  back  for  more  than  a  few  seconds.  Though  this 
animal  is  known  in  Persia  as  a  wild  ass,  it  was  found  in 
the  Imperial  Museum  at  St.  Petersburg,  where  our  speci- 
men is  now  to  be  seen  stuffed,  that  they  are  erroneously 
so  termed,  being  in  fact  wild  horses.  These  so-called 
wild  asses  are  sometimes  kept  in  the  gardens  of  Meshed  as 
watch  dogs,  and  well  do  they  perform  their  duties.  The 
she-asses  are  more  gentle  and  are  often  taught  to  bear 
handling  and  even  sometimes  the  saddle.  The  flesh  of  the 
young  asses  resembles  venison  and  it  is  considered  a 
dainty  by  the  Bedouins. 

If,  then,  that  famous  mare  "Shammarie"  alone  ran 
down  a  wild  ass  no  more  need  be  said. 

The  first  consideration  in  training  a  horse  is  to  'develop 
the  powers  of  endurance,  and  with  this  in  view  the  Bed- 
ouins take  their  three-year-old  colts  on  hunting  expedi- 
tions. Instances  have  been  known  when  Bedouins  have 
made  as  many  as  four  hundred  miles  on  their  mares  in 
five  days  and  nights,  with  scant  food  and  drink.  The 
real  Bedouin  takes  his  horses  only  on  ghazus  or  the  chase. 
All  journeyings  are  done  exclusively  on  camels.  In  rid- 
ing the  Bedouin  never  spares  himself  nor  his  steed,  quot- 
ing the  saying  that  "  the  horseman's  grave  is  ever  open." 

The  next  care  is  to  develop  a  fast  walk.  This  achieved, 
all  the  rest,  they  say,  will  follow.  Quickness  in  turning, 
which  is  so  necessary  when  on  ghazus,  is  highly  valued. 

The  Bedouin  has  a  loose  seat  and  leans  forward.  He 
rides  on  a  sort  of  pad,  without  stirrups,  and  the  girth  is 


162         LIFE   IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

never  tightly  strapped.  Bits  and  bridles  are  very  seldom 
used,  the  Bedouin  preferring  a  halter,  generally  with  a 
single  rope  on  one  side  of  the  neck  only,  and  guides  his 
horse  with  a  short  stick  or  wand  called  "  meshab "  or 
"mikdjan"  and  which  he  always  has  with  him.  The 
horse  is  guided  by  gently  touching  him  on  one  side  of  the 
neck  or  the  other  with  this  stick.  Sometimes  one  meets 
with  spurs  strapped  on  to  the  bare  foot.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  months  when  the  horses  are  turned  out  to  pas- 
ture one  never  sees  them  without  a  saddle  or  pad  on  their 
back,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Turkoman  horses  in  Trans- 
caspia;  the  difference  being  that  over  the  saddle  the 
Turkomans  cover  the  horse  from  shoulder  to  tail  with  a 
heavy  felt,  however  hot  the  sun  may  be. 

Loving  and  prizing  the  horse  as  the  Arab  does,  a 
special  terminology  more  rich  than  in  any  other  language 
has  been  developed  to  describe  them. 

It  is  sufficient  to  cite  such  instances  as  a  special  name 
for  a  horse  having  a  star,  or  for  one  having  a  star  and  one 
white  fetlock  or  two  white  legs,  etc.  Great  attention  is 
paid  to  the  colour  and  even  shading  of  a  horse,  certain 
qualities  being  claimed  as  depending  upon  colour.  For 
instance,  a  bay  is  considered  the  most  enduring;  chestnut, 
light  in  movements;  white,  the  royal  colour  but  impatient 
of  the  sun's  rays.  Various  shades  of  grey  are  not  bad,  black 
not  to  be  depended  upon  on  stony  ground,  and  cream 
and  especially  parti-coloured  are  despised.  According 
to  these  theories  such  selections  are  made  in  breeding  that 
black  horses  are  very  seldom  met  with,  dun  and  cream- 
coloured  still  more  rarely,  and  as  for  a  parti-coloured 
horse,  I  never  saw  one  in  Turkish  Arabia.  Markings  are 
divided  into  lucky  and  unlucky.  A  star  on  the  forehead, 
for  instance,  is  deemed  lucky,  the  same  with  a  white 
face  if  regular  in  outline.  If  a  horse  has  three  white  fet- 
locks, and  one  of  the  right  legs  front  or  back  is  normal. 


ARAB   HORSE  IN   ITS   NATIVE   LAND     163 

it  is  considered  a  good  sign,  whereas  if  only  the  two  fore- 
legs are  white  or  the  one  right  leg,  it  is  looked  upon  as 
unlucky.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  right  fore  and  left 
back  legs  are  white  it  is  again  a  good  sign.  All  four  white 
legs  are  disliked. 

Whorls  or  curly  places  in  the  hair  are  considered  lucky 
or  unlucky  according  to  the  part  of  the  body  upon  which 
they  are  found.  If  on  the  breast,  between  the  ears  or  on 
the  hips,  they  are  said  to  be  lucky,  whereas  if  the  curly 
spots  are  over  the  eyes,  on  the  cheeks  or  near  the  tail  they 
are  considered  unlucky. 

The  Arabs  consider  as  defects  in  a  horse  a  narrow 
chest,  over-large  ears,  and  a  low  setting  of  the  tail.  As 
to  age,  the  Arab  divides  his  horse's  life  into  three  periods, 
which  he  characterises  thus : 

"  Seba'-li-kruya, 
Seba'-au-liza, 
Seba'-li-adviza." 

Roughly  translated,  seven  years  for  my  brother  (to 
ride),  seven  years  for  myself,  seven  years  for  my  enemies. 
Bedouins  are  always  gentle  and  patient  with  their  horses 
and  never  treat  them  roughly  or  beat  them.  This  is 
proved  by  the  absolutely  fearless,  confiding  manner  in 
which  the  Arab  horses  allow  man  to  approach  them.  As 
their  proverb  says,  "  The  rider  trains  his  horse  as  a  hus- 
band does  his  wife."  The  first  care  of  a  Bedouin,  even 
before  his  own  ease,  is  his  horse,  and  there  is  a  saying  in 
the  desert  that  "  work  that  does  not  belittle  a  man  is  for 
his  horse,  for  his  brother  and  for  his  guest."  In  return 
the  horse  serves  his  Bedouin  master  with  his  whole  heart, 
though  spirited  always  docile,  ready  to  work  as  long  as 
there  is  any  strength  left  in  him,  loving  his  master  and 
recognising  him  out  of  many. 


164         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

In  passing  I  will  notice  that  the  Arab  views  in  regard 
to  the  colour  and  marking  of  horses  have  passed  into 
Persia.  Black  horses  are  considered  inferior  and  the 
same  views  are  held  in  regard  to  white  markings.  In 
respect  to  the  latter  there  is  a  strange  theory.  Such  horses 
the  Persian  avoids,  saying  they  bring  misfortune  in  fam- 
ily life  in  the  form  of  unfaithfulness  in  the  wife. 

From  Arabia  horses  have  for  many  years  been  trans- 
ported into  India  and  Egypt.  This  lucrative  profession 
is  in  the  hands  of  Arabs  or  Persians  of  the  Gulf.  In 
selecting  horses  for  the  Indian  market  the  Jambazes,  as 
the  dealers  are  called,  pay  little  attention  to  breed  or 
qualities,  counting  on  every  "  Gulf  Arab  "  bringing  them 
from  90  to  100  pounds  sterling. 

Many  are  the  tricks  to  which  they  resort  trying  to  pass 
their  horses  off  as  thoroughbreds.  The  horse  market  in 
Bombay  during  the  season  when  horses  are  brought  down 
the  Gulf  is  an  interesting  spectacle,  and  it  is  seldom  that 
any  valuable  piece  of  horse  flesh  is  found,  but  if  any  such 
is  to  be  had  exorbitant  prices  are  asked. 

In  spite  of  their  often  inferior  quality  these  Arabs  have 
secured  a  reputation  among  horse  owners,  and  one  meets 
them  everywhere  as  riding  horses  and  polo  ponies.  Only 
of  late  years  are  horses  being  brought  from  Australia  to 
dispute  the  field  with  the  Arabs. 

The  principal  ports  from  which  Arab  horses  are  ex- 
ported are  Bagdad,  Koweyt  and  Bassorah.  Koweyt  is  the 
chief  port  for  the  central  Arabian  market,  as  from  there 
Nedj  is  only  nine  days'  march  through  the  desert.  Bagdad 
is  the  point  for  Irak  and  Shammar  horses.  The  horses 
are  taken  down  the  Gulf  on  "British  India"  steamers. 
They  are  placed  in  rows  on  deck,  standing  very  closely 
together  so  that  in  rough  weather  they  keep  each  other 
up,  and  for  many  days  at  a  time  they  are  not  allowed  to 
lie  down.  The  owner  constantly  walks  up  and  down  the 


ARAB   HORSE  IN   ITS  NATIVE  LAND     165 

ranks  stick  in  hand  to  see  that  none  of  the  unfortunate 
animals  lie  down  in  rough  weather.  Their  suffering  is 
often  very  great,  and  I  myself  have  seen  groups  of  horses 
in  the  Bombay  market  fresh  from  the  steamer  with  all 
four  legs  swollen  to  a  shapeless  mass.  The  buyers,  accus- 
tomed to  this,  do  not  seem  to  pay  any  attention  to  the  tem- 
porary disfigurement.  In  this  way  as  many  as  3,000  horses 
are  shipped  annually  from  the  Persian  Gulf  ports.  The 
export  of  mares  is  forbidden  by  the  Turkish  Government. 

In  conclusion  I  will  speak  of  my  own  observations  of 
Arab  horses. 

During  our  stay  at  Bagdad  we  had  three  Arab  stallions, 
one  dappled  grey,  about  thirteen  hands,  a  Seglawie.  This 
was  a  strong,  high-spirited,  gentle  horse  bought  of  a  town 
Arab  for  $250.*  There  is  nothing  special  to  be  said  about 
him.  He  was  always  a  conscientious  worker,  courageous 
as  a  hunter,  and  during  long  marches  never  showed  signs 
of  weariness.  The  second,  Hamdanie,  my  wife's  horse, 
was  remarkable  for  his  size,  being  over  fourteen  hands, 
which  is  rare  among  Arab  horses.  He  was  a  dark  golden 
chestnut  that  in  the  rays  of  the  sun  reflected  all  the  colours 
of  a  pigeon's  breast.  By  an  unusual  stroke  of  luck  I 
bought  him  as  a  four-year-old  from  a  pasha's  widow  for 
$400,  and,  by  the  way,  five  years  later  sold  him  for  a  little 
over  that  sum.  Though  so  young  he  was  thoroughly 
broken.  His  former  master  obtained  him  during  an  ex- 
pedition in  the  desert  and  at  the  roots  of  his  ears  remained 
the  marks  of  the  string  with  which  as  a  colt  they  had  been 
tied  and  on  his  feet  were  the  scars  of  the  Arab  hobbles. 
While  being  a  remarkably  spirited  animal  he  was  docile 
and  obedient  to  the  degree  of  being  sensitive  to  the 
slightest  motion  of  his  rider,  with  whom  he  seemed  to 
be  one,  whose  wishes  he  would  seem  to  anticipate.  See- 

1  From  the  date  of  which  I  am  speaking  the  price  of  horses  has  risen 
35  to  40  per  cent. 


166         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

ing  him  snort  and  prance  with  raised  flowing  tail  and  di- 
lated pink  nostrils  it  would  seem  that  he  would  be  a  dan- 
gerous or  a  difficult  horse  to  ride.  But  without  a  mo- 
ment's hesitation  I  should  have  allowed  a  six-year-old 
child  to  mount  him,  being  certain  that  not  only  would 
Hamdanie  never  throw  the  child  but  would  at  once  mod- 
ify his  paces.  He  understood  perfectly  his  rider.  Once  I 
allowed  one  of  my  men,  a  heavy  2OO-pound  Turk  who 
assured  me  he  was  a  fine  rider,  to  mount  Hamdanie.  All 
went  well  until  we  were  outside  the  town — in  the  desert 
I  heard  a  heavy  thud  behind  me  and  on  looking  around  I 
saw  the  Turk  lying  on  the  ground  while  Hamdanie  stood 
snuffing  him  with  astonishment.  The  crestfallen  man 
arose,  brushed  off  the  dust,  muttering  something  about 
"  kismet,"  and  tried  not  to  see  the  ill-suppressed  smiles  of 
all  around  him. 

Hamdanie's  tail  and  mane  were  thin  but  as  soft  as  silk. 
When  in  motion  he  held  his  tail  high  and  every  hair 
seemed  to  spread  out,  giving  the  impression  of  a  heavy 
flowing  tail.  This  he  held  so  high  that  often  in  flourish- 
ing his  tail  it  lightly  struck  the  rider's  back.  His  head 
was  thin,  with  long,  beautifully  pointed  ears  set  closely 
together.  His  eyes  were  very  large  and  full,  the  hair 
under  them  being  so  thin  that  the  black  skin  could  be 
seen.  His  legs  and  hoofs  were  faultless  and  his  skin  so 
fine  that  every  vein  could  be  seen  through  the  satin-like 
coat.  His  walk  was  unusually  fast,  and  on  the  march 
when  riding  at  the  head  of  the  caravan — for  Hamdanie 
would  never  be  second — I  was  constantly  obliged  to  check 
him,  as  none  of  the  others,  not  excepting  Seglawie,  could 
keep  up  unless  by  trotting.  During  all  the  years  we  had 
him  I  struck  him  but  once,  and  then  I  repented.  He  im- 
mediately seemed  to  shrink  together,  his  head  and  tail, 
that  he  always  carried  so  high,  dropped,  and  he  showed 
such  clear  evidence  of  hurt  pride  that  I  was  filled  with 


ARAB   HORSE  IN   ITS  NATIVE   LAND     167 

sorrow  for  him  and  shame  for  myself.  He  always  kept 
in  touch  with  his  rider,  as  one  could  see  by  his  holding 
one  ear  slightly  back,  especially  if  going  fast,  to  catch  the 
faintest  movement  of  his  rider.  I  shall  give  the  following 
illustrations  of  his  intelligence. 

I  was  once  going  out  shooting  in  February.  The  Tigris 
was  at  full  flood,  its  muddy  waters  fairly  foaming  and 
boiling  as  they  swept  along  with  a  speed  of  fully  eight 
miles  an  hour.  We  had  to  cross  the  pontoon  bridge  of 
which  I  have  spoken  before.  The  part  of  the  bridge  that 
opened  to  permit  of  vessels  passing  was  arranged  in  the 
most  primitive  manner.  Two  broad  boards  were  thrown 
across  the  two  separate  halves  of  the  bridge,  and  bolted 
in  place.  When  a  high-masted  boat  passed  these  bolts 
were  withdrawn,  the  boards  removed  and  the  bridge  was 
open. 

I  was  accompanied  by  a  number  of  men  and  was  riding 
as  usual  in  the  front  of  the  company  on  Hamdanie,  who 
under  the  influence  of  the  spring  was  even  more  full  of 
life  than  usual,  prancing  from  one  side  of  the  road  to  the 
other,  snorting  and  spreading  out  his  tail.  Every  party  of 
Arabs  that  we  passed,  horse  lovers  that  they  are,  followed 
him  with  admiring  eyes,  exclaiming,  "Mash  Allah!" 
As  we  began  to  cross  the  bridge  and  came  to  the  dividing 
part  I  noticed  that  the  bolts  were  not  in  place,  the  boards 
lying  loosely  and  not  even  closely  together,  but  some  five 
or  six  inches  apart.  My  impulse  was  to  stop  and  have  the 
boards  properly  fastened,  but  a  false  sense  of  shame  at 
expressing  what  would  seem  like  timidity  kept  me  silent. 
Just  at  that  moment  a  guffa  passed  rapidly  under  the 
bridge  and  someone  in  it  shouted,  startling  Hamdanie,  who 
started  slightly,  and  before  I  realised  what  had  happened 
one  foot  and  then  the  whole  body  went  down  between  the 
boards.  In  a  second  almost  unconsciously  the  instinct 
of  self-preservation  caused  me  to  give  a  desperate  bound 


168         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

over  the  horse's  head  and  on  to  the  main  part  of  the  bridge, 
while  poor  Hamdanie  stuck  between  the  boards,  that  for- 
tunately were  kept  by  a  little  unevenness  from  separating 
further,  while  he  was  held  up  by  the  flaps  of  my 
English  military  saddle,  with  his  legs  hanging  over  the 
foaming  torrent.  Had  he  struggled  he  surely  would  have 
fallen  through.  In  less  time  than  it  takes  to  tell  a  crowd 
had  gathered,  and,  as  is  usual  with  a  crowd,  each  one  was 
shouting  advice  and  instructions,  but  doing  nothing.  My 
own  men  were  on  the  other  side  and  feared  to  cross  over. 
Some  one  gave  me  a  rope  and  at  considerable  risk  I  got 
over  to  where  the  poor  beast  was,  and  fastening  it  firmly 
round  his  neck  again  crossed  over  to  the  main  bridge, 
not  knowing  what  to  do  next.  Had  it  been  later  in  the 
season  the  simplest  way  would  have  been  to  remove  the 
boards  and  let  the  horse  drop  into  the  water,  trusting  to 
his  swimming  safely  to  shore,  but  with  such  a  flood  it  was 
out  of  the  question.  In  the  meantime  the  shouting  crowd 
increased,  my  own  men  had  disappeared,  and  I  was  left 
holding  the  rope,  and  a  few  feet  from  me  Hamdanie  hang- 
ing, never  moving  a  muscle  but  with  his  eyes  fixed  on  me 
with  what  seemed  to  me  an  imploring  look.  At  last  I  saw 
my  men  floating  down  in  a  guffa,  carrying  long  poles  in 
their  hands.  Everyone  at  once  understood  their  idea. 
Several  hands  seized  hold  of  the  rope  I  had  fastened 
round  Hamdanie's  neck,  and  others  ventured  to  get  hold 
of  the  flaps  of  the  saddle,  and  all  pulled  together  as  the 
men  from  below  pushed  the  horse  upwards  with  their 
poles.  At  the  risk  of  strangling  him  all  pulled  and  finally 
got  the  miserable  creature  half  over  one  of  the  boards. 
Even  here  had  he  struggled  we  should  have  lost  him,  but 
in  spite  of  what  must  have  been  excruciating  pain  the  in- 
telligent animal  never  moved.  As  soon  as  he  was  pushed 
well  on  to  the  boards  he  carefully  rose  and  with  a  whinny 
shook  himself ;  but  what  a  sight  our  beautiful  horse  was ! 


EUROPEAN  CHILDREN  RIDING  IN  BOXES  ON 
DONKEY  BACK  IN  PERSIA 


ARAB   HORSE  IN   ITS  NATIVE  LAND     169 

The  torn  and  lacerated  flesh  hung  in  strips  and  streams 
of  blood  trickled  down  his  legs.  The  tender,  shining 
coat  was  nearly  scraped  off  his  belly  and  the  under  sides 
of  his  legs  by  the  cruel  poles  with  which  they  had  hoisted 
him  from  below.  A  hasty  examination,  however,  con- 
vinced us  that  he  was  not  otherwise  seriously  injured,  and 
we  led  him  home.  He  was  laid  up  for  a  long  time  and 
was  so  swollen  and  stiff  that  he  could  not  lie  down  and  we 
had  to  arrange  to  sling  him.  During  this  time  he  was  as 
patient  and  as  thankful  for  treatment  and  kindness  as  a 
human  being  could  be,  and  when  in  great  pain  would  seem 
to  be  consoled  with  his  beautiful  head  laid  on  his  mis- 
tress's shoulder  while  she  soothed  and  patted  him. 

Another  time  when  he  showed  an  almost  human  under- 
standing my  wife  was  riding  him. 

Returning  from  a  ride  one  evening  as  we  entered  the 
town  we  had  to  pass  through  an  archway  and  then  turn 
sharply  into  a  narrow  lane.  Just  as  we  entered  the  arch, 
my  wife  leading  the  party,  a  large  band  of  children  came 
racing  down  the  lane,  and  one  after  the  other  on  turning 
the  corner  ran  into  Hamdanie,  who  was  cantering  and  as 
usual  prancing.  I  turned  cold  with  horror  as  I  foresaw 
the  awful  accident  that  seemed  unavoidable.  The  wise 
creature  understood  the  danger  as  well  as  I  (}id,  and  in 
a  second  stopped  short  and  threw  himself  back,  sit- 
ting literally  like  a  dog  on  his  haunches  with  forelegs 
well  spread,  receiving  one  after  another  the  children,  who 
ran  full  into  his  arms  as  it  were.  Hard  as  the  position 
was  for  horse  and  rider,  he  kept  it  up  until  the  last  child 
had  run  round  the  corner  into  him.  The  little  ones  picked 
themselves  up,  quite  unconscious  of  the  fate  the  horse's 
kindness  had  spared  them.  Hamdanie  was  the  universal 
favourite.  No  one  who  knew  him  could  pass  the  stables 
without  stopping  to  pat  him  or  feed  him  with  dates,  of 
which  he  was  very  fond.  It  was  a  pretty  sight  to  watch 


170         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

him  tease  his  groom  when  the  man  was  cleaning  the 
stables.  With  his  teeth  he  would  slyly  undo  the  man's 
belt,  extract  his  handkerchief  from  the  capacious  Arab 
pocket  or  take  off  his  groom's  hat,  holding  it  in  his  teeth 
high  up  almost  out  of  reach. 

I  remember  the  horror  and  indignation  of  our  groom 
when  one  day,  crossing  the  Euphrates,  I  thoughtlessly 
handed  Hamdanie's  bridle  to  an  Arab  who  happened  to 
be  there  and  offered  his  services.  Like  a  lion  the  groom 
pounced  upon  the  unoffending  Arab  and  snatched  away 
the  bridle.  "  One  cannot  give  such  a  horse  to  the  care 
of  a  stranger,"  he  panted,  looking  at  me  with  flashing  eyes. 
"  He  might  spring  onto  his  back  and  then  the  wind  even 
would  never  catch  Hamdanie." 

My  third  pure-blooded  horse  was  a  Rishan,  eight  years 
old,  not  quite  thirteen  hands  high,  grey  with  pinkish 
dapples,  which  is  much  admired  by  the  Arabs. 

The  history  of  how  he  came  into  my  possession  and  of 
how  I  worked  to  get  rid  of  him  is  worth  telling. 

Among  my  acquaintances  was  a  pasha  of  Circassian 
origin  whose  official  duties  often  caused  him  to  make  ex- 
peditions into  the  desert,  when  he  was  occasionally  able 
in  one  way  or  another  to  get  hold  of  thoroughbred  horses. 
Among  these  horses  was  Rishan.  We  often  met  the  pasha 
in  our  rides,  on  Rishan,  when  he  generally  joined  our 
party.  Being  a  fine  rider,  the  pasha  often  rode  Rishan 
in  the  Arab  way  without  a  bit,  guiding  him  with  one  rope 
and  his  "  meshab."  This  made  the  greater  impression  as 
Rishan  was  an  uncommonly  hot-headed  horse,  and  the 
onlookers  always  felt  that  the  pasha  was  risking  his  life 
riding  that  way  in  a  city.  I  have  never  before  nor  since 
seen  such  a  typically  graceful  and  beautiful  horse.  His 
small  lean  head,  full  eyes,  small  pointed  ears,  silken  tail 
flowing  when  the  horse  was  in  motion,  delicate  dark  skin 
through  which  every  vein  and  muscle  could  be  traced, 


ARAB   HORSE  IN   ITS  NATIVE  LAND     171 

clean,  fine  legs — all  spoke  of  blood.  Several  months 
passed,  when  I  learned  through  a  mutual  friend  that  the 
pasha  would  not  be  averse  to  selling  Rishan  for  $450. 
But  as  he  was  a  proud  Circassian  pasha,  he  considered  it 
beneath  his  dignity  to  go  through  the  sordid  details  of 
bargaining  and  selling,  and  I  had  to  play  a  comedy  in 
which  there  were  two  leading  figures. 

The  comedy  was  as  follows :  One  day  while  calling  on 
the  pasha,  Rishan  was  led  into  the  courtyard,  and  on  my 
warmly  expressing  my  admiration,  the  pasha,  as  soon  as  I 
left,  ordered  him  to  be  sent  to  my  house. 

Two  days  later  I  called  again  with  a  little  silk  bag  in 
which  were  £90.  During  the  call  I  asked  to  see  his 
son,  a  bright  little  fellow  of  seven,  to  whom  as  a  present  I 
gave  the  bag  containing  the  price  of  Rishan. 

I  confess  that  the  first  time  I  mounted  Rishan  I  was  not 
sure  of  myself.  Two  grooms  held  him  and  he  impa- 
tiently pawed  the  ground  with  his  tiny  hoofs,  but  the 
moment  I  was  fairly  in  the  saddle  he  was  all  gentleness 
and  obedience;  an  imperceptible  motion  of  the  reins  was 
all  he  needed,  though  he  was  snorting  and  fuming  and 
covering  me  with  flecks  of  foam.  The  more  I  rode  him 
the  more  I  liked  him. 

It  is  true  I  had  no  occasion  of  trying  him  on  the  march, 
but  for  pleasure  rides  I  could  not  wish  for  anything  bet- 
ter. All  my  friends  congratulated  me  and  I  was  very 
proud  of  my  new  possession  until  one,  to  me,  memorable 
day,  when  a  number  of  us  went  for  a  ride  in  the  desert. 
Some  one  asked  me  to  show  off  his  paces,  and  all  coming 
to  a  halt  I  turned  to  go  off  the  beaten  track.  To  my  sur- 
prise the  gentle  Rishan  gave  an  ugly  toss  of  his  head  and 
began  to  gnaw  the  bit.  I  touched  him  lightly  with  the 
spur  and  the  next  moment  he  was  standing  straight  up 
on  his  hind  legs  and  stayed  there  so  long  that  it  seemed 
as  if  he  must  fall  backwards.  I  slipped  off  his  croup  to 


172        LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST; 

the  ground,  still  holding  the  bridle,  and  he  then  came 
down  to  his  normal  four  legs.  One  of  my  men,  an  Arab, 
mounted  Rishan,  and  on  attempting  to  turn  him  aside  from 
the  company  the  horse  repeated  the  same  performance. 
We  had  to  give  in,  and  remounting  Rishan,  and  keeping 
with  the  other  horses,  he  was  the  same  gentle  animal  we 
had  known.  My  man,  no  less  mystified  than  I  with  this 
new  freak,  undertook  next  day  to  come  to  an  understand- 
ing with  the  horse,  and  he  soon  found  the  secret  of  his 
gentleness  came  in  keeping  with  the  party  or  letting  him 
take  the  lead.  The  moment  he  was  crossed  or  turned  away 
from  his  fellows  he  became  another  being.  A  Bedouin 
horse  breaker  was  then  sent  for,  who  at  the  first  sight  of 
Rishan  recognised  him  and  flatly  refused  to  ride  him. 
The  man  told  us  Rishan's  pedigree  and  said  that  he  had 
killed  two  owners  and  was  well  known  for  his  vice.  He 
added  that  had  it  not  been  for  this  defect  the  horse  would 
have  been  priceless.  We  decided  to  get  rid  of  such  an 
animal.  It  was  autumn  and  the  horse  dealers  from  India 
were  then  buying  up  horses,  and  we  easily  found  a  man 
who  consented  to  sign  a  paper  saying  that  he  bought  the 
horse  for  half  the  price  I  had  paid  for  him,  as  he  was  fully 
aware  of  Rishan's  dangerous  qualities.  My  only  stipu- 
lation was  that  the  Jambaz  himself  should  take  Rishan 
out  of  the  stable,  for  since  we  had  ceased  riding  him  he 
had  become  very  ugly,  biting  and  kicking  even  his  groom, 
so  that  finally  food  and  water  had  to  be  pushed  towards 
him.  We  all  went  out  to  see  Rishan  the  day  he  was  taken 
away.  Several  men  with  difficulty  had  run  him  out  for 
the  Jambaz  to  mount.  Once  out  of  our  gate  a  difference 
of  opinion  as  to  the  direction  to  be  taken  arose  between 
Rishan  and  his  rider.  The  Jambaz  insisted  upon  going 
where  he  wished,  but  Rishan  had  his  revenge,  for  he 
went  prancing  along  so  close  to  the  walls  that  he  literally 
skinned  the  thinly  clad  Arab's  side  I 


ARAB   HORSE  IN   ITS  NATIVE  LAND     173 

Just  before  they  sailed  I  went  to  see  my  Rishan  and 
hardly  recognised  him  in  the  thin,  half-starved  horse 
they  showed  me.  It  seemed  that  to  tame  him  for  the  long 
voyage  the  Jambaz  had  given  him  just  enough  food  and 
drink  to  keep  him  alive.  When  I  asked  the  new  owner 
if  he  thought  the  poor  fellow  would  survive  such  treat- 
ment he  replied,  "  In-sha'allah,  "  if  it  be  God's  will."  Of 
Rishan's  further  fate  I  only  know  that  he  was  sold  to  an 
Englishman  in  India  for  400  pounds  sterling,  and  for 
years  whenever  we  read  in  the  Indian  paper  of  an  acci- 
dent in  which  a  grey  horse  figured  we  wondered  if  it  were 
not  our  Rishan. 

In  justice  to  Arab  horses  I  must  say  that  such  vicious 
specimens  are  very  rare,  and  during  my  five  years'  stay 
in  Turkish  Arabia  I  never  even  heard  of  another  Arab 
that  possessed  such  vice,  and  I  always  attributed  Rishan's 
temper  to  some  harshness  he  must  have  met  with  in  his 
youth. 


CHAPTER  X 
FROM    BAGDAD  TO   BASSORAH 

"  Califah  " — Bagdad  Filters  and  Water  Coolers — Ruins  of  Ctesiphon 
and  Seleucia — Suleiman  Pak — Kut-el-Amara — The  Shatt-el-Hai 
Canal — Lions  in  Mesopotamia  and  Persia — How  Persians  and  Arabs 
Meet  Lions — An  Unexpected  Lion  Hunt — Sand  Storms — Kurna — 
Tree  of  Knowledge  of  Good  and  Evil — Tomb  of  Ezra — Palm 
Groves — Importance  of  Palm  Tree — Palm  Cultivation — Artificial 
Fertilisation — Varieties  of  Dates. 

WE  were  on  the  little  river  steamer  "  Califah  "  belonging 
to  the  English  Company  Lynch  on  our  way  down  to  Bas- 
sorah.  From  the  latter  place  we  intended  taking  an  ocean 
liner  to  Muscat. 

The  "  Califah"  was  a  comfortable  little  steamer  built 
for  a  shallow  stream  and  having  its  sides  not  more  than 
a  foot  and  a  half  from  the  water.  There  were  several 
roomy,  comfortable  cabins  for  first-class  passengers,  and 
the  stout,  good-natured  English  captain  did  all  he  could 
for  the  comfort  and  entertainment  of  his  passengers. 
There  were  only  a  few  in  the  first  class,  and  these  were 
of  various  nationalities — two  Englishmen,  a  German,  a 
Frenchman,  my  wife  and  I.  All  these  passengers  were  ac- 
quaintances, and,  having  on  board  our  Goanese  Mendoza 
and  Fernando,  we  felt  quite  at  home.  As  the  time  was 
October,  low  water,  the  500  miles  as  the  crow  flies  could 
hardly  be  made  under  four  days,  whereas  at  the  season  of 
full  water  it  takes  not  more  than  tweny-four  hours  to  go 
down  to  Bassorah.  Most  of  the  day  was  spent  on  deck 

174 


FROM   BAGDAD   TO  BASSORAH        175 

under  the  awning,  as  even  in  October  the  cabins  were 
too  warm.  Near  us  on  the  deck  stood  two  huge  native 
filters,  and  water  coolers,  in  one.  Better  filters  than  these 
I  have  never  seen ;  they  are  primitive  in  the  extreme  and 
are  to  be  found  in  every  house,  however  poor.  They  are 
large  egg-shaped  jars  made  of  porous  clay  and  stand  in  a 
wooden  four-legged  frame  in  such  a  way  as  to  have  the 
bottom  a  foot  off  the  floor.  The  water  filters  through  the 
thick  porous  bottom  into  another  receptacle  place'd  be- 
neath. The  water  in  the  Tigris  river  is  a  cafe  au  lait  col- 
our, yet  when  it  comes  out  of  these  filters  it  is  the  most 
delicious  sparkling  drink,  as  clear  as  the  best  spring 
water.  From  the  same  clay  as  the  filters  water  jars  are 
made,  that  are  to  be  found  all  over  the  East  and  are  the 
greatest  boons  in  these  hot  lands.  On  the  hottest  day  a 
water  jug  of  this  kind  placed  in  a  draught  becomes  so 
cool  as  to  seem  cold,  and  on  our  steamer  these  filters  were 
placed  where  they  could  catch  the  wind. 

Owing  to  the  low  water  the  steamer  glided  between 
high  banks  as  if  at  the  bottom  of  a  huge  canal.  In  the 
bow  an  Arab  stood,  monotonously  calling  the  depth  of 
the  water,  as  they  do  on  the  Volga  steamers  at  the  same 
season.  In  the  springtime  the  sail  down  the  river  is  quite 
different.  Then  the  Tigris  overflows  its  banks  and  some- 
times it  seems  as  if  we  were  in  a  lake.  Only  by  the 
colour  of  the  water  and  the  swiftness  of  the  current  can 
the  actual  river  stream  be  followed.  Then,  too,  it  is  more 
interesting,  as  we  can  see  over  the  vast  flat  plain  covered 
with  grass  and  flocks  and  herds  and  sometimes  tents. 

In  general  the  scenery  is  monotonous :  a  strip  of  palm 
groves  where  a  village  is  approached;  at  other  times 
flat  plain,  with  grass  or  low  bushes,  and  in  the  early 
spring  Arab  encampments. 

The  flooding  of  the  Tigris  brings  down  magnificent 
fertilisation  to  the  soil  along  the  river's  edge,  but  irriga- 


176         LIFE   IN  THE  MOSLEM    EAST 

tion  is  needed  to  save  it  from  becoming  the  desert  that 
surrounds  us. 

From  a  historical  point  of  view  the  trip  from  Bagdad 
to  Bassorah  is  full  of  interest,  taking  us,  as  it  does,  through 
scenes  of  the  most  remote  antiquity.  The  mounds,  ap- 
parently small  natural  hills.,  that  one  sees  at  every  turn, 
are  all  silent  witnesses  of  flourishing  cities  that  once  rose 
there. 

Thirty-five  miles  from  Bagdad  we  passed  the  mouth  of 
a  small  tributary  of  the  Tigris,  the  Diala,  along  which  are 
fertile  gardens.  Almost  hidden  by  the  trees  is  the  town 
of  Bacuba,  the  administrative  centre  of  the  district  of  the 
same  name,  and  near  by  are  yet  unexplored  ruins  of  an- 
cient Bagdad. 

Diala  is  a  small  district  of  only  about  200,000  inhabit- 
ants, but  owing  to  the  rivers  and  well-organised  irrigation 
it  is  noted  for  its  productiveness.  Two  crops  are  raised 
annually:  the  autumn  one  of  wheat,  oats  and  other 
grain,  and  the  summer  crop  of  cotton,  rice,  tobacco,  etc. 
The  date  palms  are  also  plentiful. 

As  we  advance,  the  Tigris  becomes  more  and  more 
winding.  In  some  places  the  stream  makes  long  turns 
around  a  point,  like  a  bow,  and  one  can  often  walk  across 
in  half  an  hour  to  a  point  that  it  will  take  two  or  three 
hours  for  the  steamer  to  reach.  In  such  a  position  are  to 
be  found  the  ruins  of  Ctesiphon.  My  wife  and  I  wish- 
ing to  visit  this  famous  ruin,  the  captain  kindly  stopped 
the  steamer  and  let  us  off.  The  ground  was  covered  with 
a  low  undergrowth  of  bushes,  and  in  the  open  places  the 
soil  was  cracked  from  the  sun  in  deep  fissures  of  fantastic 
shape,  as  if  it  were  one  of  the  sawed  puzzles  for  children. 
In  the  spring  the  shooting  here  is  of  wonderful  variety. 
Once  in  going  along  a  similar  neck  of  land  in  the  spring 
without  a  dog,  we  raised  over  twenty  duradji  in  less  than 
an  hour's  time,  saw  a  hyena,  a  wild  cat,  and  in  the  deep 


FROM    BAGDAD   TO   BASSORAH        177 

bushes  my  wife  stumbled  over  an  object  which  proved  to 
be  a  wild  boar,  very  much  disconcerted  at  having  his  nap 
disturbed.  His  feelings  were  still  more  upset  by  the  tick- 
ling of  a  discharge  of  shot  that  I  sent  after  him,  all  I  had, 
as  we  had  not  expected  anything  larger  than  duradji.  Of 
all  the  animals  of  the  desert  the  hyena  is  the  most  repul- 
sive. Everything  about  it  inspires  disgust:  its  ungainly 
gait,  its  coarse  bristly  hair,  its  colour,  its  voice,  reminding 
one  of  the  wild  laugh  of  the  insane,  and  finally  the  fact  of 
its  feeding  mostly  on  the  carcasses  of  the  dead.  Stories 
of  hyenas  disturbing  graves  are  authentic.  In  Persia  I 
have  seen  graves  torn  up  by  these  monsters,  who  often  turn 
over  large  stones  that  are  placed  as  protections  against  the 
hyenas.  In  many  parts  of  Persia  a  fire  is  kept  burning 
several  nights  after  a  burial,  to  frighten  them  off,  for 
some  unclean  instinct  teaches  the  hyena  when  a  fresh 
corpse  is  laid  in  the  ground.  It  is  not  often  that  a  grave 
is  disturbed  after  the  first  few  days  or  weeks. 

But  to  return  to  the  ruins  of  Ctesiphon,  the  ancient  cap- 
ital of  the  Parthian  kings.  Of  the  city  nothing  remains 
but  a  cluster  of  mounds,  but  there  is  one  object  that  dis- 
tinguishes this  ruin  from  the  monotony  of  the  mounds 
that  are  all  one  generally  sees.  This  is  the  arch  of  the 
famous  Audience  Hall  of  Chosroes  the  last  of  the  Sassa- 
nian  kings. 

This  gigantic  arch  rises  80  feet  in  height  and  leads  into 
the  remains  of  the  throne  hall,  which  is  even  now  148 
feet  in  depth.  On  either  side  of  this  huge  chamber  are 
the  remains  of  many  smaller  rooms.  The  walls  are  of 
brick  strengthened  from  time  to  time  by  layers  of  wood, 
of  cedar  brought  from  Lebanon.  It  was  our  good  for- 
tune to  secure  a  detached  bit  of  this  cedar  over  a  foot  long, 
that  time  had  rendered  almost  as  hard  as  iron  and  that 
bears  no  sign  of  decay.  The  facade  of  all  that  remains 
of  the  building  is  270  feet  long.  The  width  of  the  arch 


178         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

itself  is  76  feet,  and  the  thickness  of  the  walls  of  the  fagade 
of  the  building  is  18  feet.  When  Ctesiphon  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Arab  conquerors,  they  found  the  great 
throne  of  Chosroes,  the  great  Sassanian  king,  whose  valour 
is  chanted  so  beautifully  by  Firdusi  in  his  immortal 
"  Shah-Namah  " — also,  it  is  said,  his  belt  and  banner. 

There  is  no  other  arch  known  that  can  compare  with 
that  of  Ctesiphon  in  its  vastness,  boldness  of  conception 
and  its  strength.  In  spite  of  the  ravages  of  time  and  vari- 
ous acts  of  vandalism  it  stands  yet,  a  silent  but  mighty  wit- 
ness of  a  vanished  people  and  civilisation,  that  have  ful- 
filled their  mission  and  given  way  to  those  of  other  ages 
that  must  in  turn  meet  with  the  same  fate. 

Ctesiphon  did  not  escape  the  miseries  that  came  to  all 
the  cities  of  what  is  now  known  as  Irak.  Founded  in 
32  B.C.  as  the  capital  of  the  Parthian  kings,  it  was  in 
1 1 6  A.D.  taken  by  the  Roman  Emperor  Trajan.  In  1 19  it 
was  taken  by  the  Emperor  Septimius  Severus,  and  in  263 
Odenathus,  the  husband  of  Zenobia,  Queen  of  Palmyra, 
laid  siege  to  it.  Later,  during  the  reign  of  the  Sassanian 
kings,  in  362,  the  Emperor  Julian  defeated  the  Persians 
under  its  walls.  Finally,  the  last  of  the  Sassanian  dynasty, 
Yezdigerd,  surrendered  Ctesiphon  to  the  Arabs  in  637. 

Opposite  to  Ctesiphon,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tigris, 
is  a  shapeless  mass  of  mounds  marking  the  site  of  another 
once  famous  city.  Seleucia,  built  between  B.C.  312  and 
302,  was  named  for  its  founder  Seleucus,  the  Syrian  king. 
The  fate  of  this  city  was  even  sadder  than  that  of  Ctesi- 
phon. Both  fell  into  the  hands  of  Trajan  at  the  same 
time,  but  Seleucia  was  burned  to  the  ground  by  its  con- 
queror, owing  to  its  having  revolted. 

Ten  years  later,  having  voluntarily  surrendered  to  the 
Romans,  it  was  burned  by  Aridius  Cassius  on  a  charge  of 
treachery.  It  was  retaken  by  Severus  in  198  A.D.  and 
again  by  Carus  in  283,  and  when  Julian  invaded  Mesopo- 


o 

Z  33 

S  2 

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5  o 


FROM    BAGDAD   TO   BASSORAH        179 

tamia,  all  he  found  of  Seleucia  was  a  heap  of  ruins.  It 
is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  there  is  nothing  to  be 
found  here  except  shapeless  mounds.  Lower  down  along 
the  banks  of  the  Tigris  are  many  other  groups  of  mounds 
where  once  were  flourishing  cities,  but  these  become  rarer 
as  we  go  farther  south. 

After  dinner  we  all  sat  in  our  deck  chairs  under  the 
bright  stars,  listening  to  the  captain's  reminiscences  of 
the  twenty-odd  years  he  had  plied  up  and  down  the  Ti- 
gris. Looking  at  the  flat,  monotonous  banks  of  the  river, 
one  would  not  think  there  would  be  much  of  interest  to 
tell  of  the  years  spent  there,  and  yet,  though  I  made  the 
trip  several  times,  I  myself  can  testify  to  some  interesting 
episode  on  each  voyage.  This  very  day,  for  instance,  a 
most  curious  incident  had  broken  the  monotony  and  given 
food  for  much  discussion  as  we  sat  together  in  the  even- 
ing. Passing  a  long  sandy  point  of  land  we  had,  from  a 
distance,  noticed  a  silvery  object  flapping  and  jumping 
about.  As  we  drew  near  we  could  see  that  it  was  a  large 
fish  stranded  on  the  shore.  A  boat  was  at  once  lowered, 
manned  and  sent  off  to  investigate.  It  soon  returned, 
bringing  the  fish,  and  to  our  amazement  we  saw  sticking 
out  of  its  mouth  another  half-swallowed  fish,  naturally  of 
very  much  smaller  size.  Evidently  this  cannibal  fish,  in 
its  endeavours  to  swallow  its  victim,  had  found  the  mor- 
sel too  big  and  in  its  frantic  efforts  to  get  its  prey  either 
up  or  down,  had  thrown  itself  bodily  out  of  the  water, 
thereby  getting  itself  into  fresh  trouble.  Both  fish  were 
prepared  for  dinner,  the  smaller  of  the  two  being,  by 
common  consent,  pronounced  to  be  the  better,  proving  the 
good  taste  of  the  cannibal. 

The  same  day  we  passed  the  tomb  of  "  Suleiman 
Pak"  (Solomon  the  Pure),  the  barber  of  the  Prophet, 
of  whom  many  legends  are  told.  This  tomb  is  an  object 
of  pilgrimage  for  all  sects  of  Mohammedans,  and  many 


i8o         LIFE  IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

are  the  stories  of  miraculous  cures  that  you  may  hear  told 
by  the  deck  passengers  on  the  steamer.  The  days  passed 
peacefully  and  pleasantly  on  this  little  journey,  as  each 
found  something  of  interest  to  do  and  the  captain  had 
quite  a  library  of  English  fiction. 

We  passed  Kut-el-Amara,  founded  in  1860  as  a  termi- 
nus for  the  caravans  from  the  interior.  From  here  be- 
gins the  Shatt-el-Hai  canal,  all  along  the  banks  of  which 
are  rich  date-palm  groves  and  strips  of  cultivated  ground. 
On  this  canal,  but  nearer  the  Euphrates,  are  the  remains 
of  several  ancient  cities  of  Chaldea,  among  them  that  of 
Tel  Lokh  (Sirtella),  brought  to  light  by  the  excavations 
of  the  former  French  consul  De  Sarce.  At  Kut-el-Amara 
we  let  fly  the  first  of  three  carrier  pigeons  given  to  the 
captain  by  the  English  consul  as  an  experiment. 

It  is  nearly  certain  that  the  home  of  the  carrier  pigeon 
is  Mesopotamia,  where  this  means  of  communication  was 
known  in  the  most  ancient  times ;  indeed,  it  is  only  since 
the  establishment  of  telegraph  lines  that  the  custom  has 
been  given  up  by  merchants.  Caravans  starting  from 
Damascus  or  Aleppo  would  have  several  of  these  birds 
given  to  the  caravan  bashi,  who  would  let  them  loose  at 
various  stages  to  give  news  of  the  progress  and  finally  of 
the  safe  arrival  of  the  caravan.  Even  now  one  can  see 
flocks  of  pigeons  of  this  breed  in  a  wild  state,  but  with 
the  homing  instinct  strongly  developed,  as  proved  by  such 
experiments  as  our  captain  made.  These  pigeons  are 
called  "  Hamam-el-batak,"  and  they  made  the  distance 
between  Bagdad  and  Bassorah  in  a  few  hours. 

The  captain  told  us  the  details  of  a  most  extraordi- 
nary lion  hunt,  of  which  we  had  heard  a  great  deal  from 
other  witnesses  of  the  same  almost  incredible  scene.  In 
passing  I  must  mention  that  right  up  to  25  years  previous 
to  the  date  of  my  story,  lions  had  been  abundant  in  Meso- 
potamia ;  the  last  years,  however,  they  had  been  exceed- 


FROM   BAGDAD  TO  BASSORAH        181 

ingly  scarce.  In  all  my  journeying  I  had  never  had  the 
good  fortune  of  seeing  one.  Only  once,  before  daybreak, 
I  heard  the  roars  of  this  king  of  beasts.  I  shall  never  for- 
get the  thrill  caused  by  that  mighty  sound  breaking  the 
silence  of  the  desert.  My  colleague,  the  United  States  con- 
sul, had  the  luck  while  we  were  in  Bagdad,  when  riding 
early  one  morning,  to  see  a  lion  sitting  quietly  in  the  des- 
ert, at  no  great  distance.  Man  and  beast  gazed  at  each 
other  with  mutual  curiosity  and  probably  awe,  and  then 
each  peacefully  continued  his  own  way.  In  the  last  years  of 
the  eighteenth  century  lions  were  very  numerous  along  the 
lower  part  of  the  Euphrates  basin,  occupied  by  the  Arab 
tribe  of  Muntifek.  It  is  said  that  the  daughters  of  the 
sheikhs  of  this  tribe  never  smiled  upon  their  suitors  un- 
til one  had  killed  his  lion.  The  means  employed  were 
primitive  though  often  successful.  The  lion  hunter 
armed  himself  with  only  a  sharp  curved  dagger,  an  iron 
peg  sharpened  at  both  ends  and  a  long  strip  of  undressed 
leather.  The  leather  he  carefully  bound  about  the  left 
arm  from  wrist  to  shoulder,  and  carried  the  peg  in  the 
same  hand,  while  in  the  right  he  held  the  dagger.  On 
finding  the  lion  he  proceeded  to  tease  and  excite  the 
beast,  until  the  enraged  lion  made  his  rush  with  open 
mouth,  which  the  Arab  braced  himself  to  meet.  Putting 
forward  the  left  arm  he  fearlessly  ran  it  down  the  great 
open  mouth  and  with  the  two-pointed  iron  tore  and  cut 
the  throat  while  with  the  dagger  he  ripped  open  the 
creature's  belly.  This  method  of  hunting  lions  is  to  be 
found  portrayed  on  many  bas-reliefs.  Even  to  this  day 
a  half-naked  Arab  will  fearlessly  face  a  lion  in  the  same 
way,  pouring  out  a  torrent  of  abuse  and  shouting,  "  Who 
art  thou,  thou  night  thief,  thou  bastard  who  knows  not 
the  name  of  thy  father,  how  darest  thou  to  defile  with  thy 
touch,  me,  the  son  of  so  and  so  [giving  his  genealogy],  of 
such  and  such  a  famous  tribe!" 


1 82        LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

The  Persians  have  another  method  of  attacking  lions. 
In  the  province  of  Shiraz  and  near  Shustan  and  Dezful, 
not  far  from  the  region  where  Daniel  was  thrown  into 
the  lions7  den,  these  beasts  are  still  to  be  found  occasion- 
ally. 

According  to  Persian  belief  the  lion  is  the  only  animal 
who  accepts  Allah  and  Ali,  the  greatest  of  the  Shiite 
imams.  Even  in  the  roaring  of  the  lion  they  claim  that 
the  name  of  Ali  can  be  distinguished  in  the  sound  "  iea- 
Ali."  Therefore  on  meeting  a  lion  the  Persian,  fully 
aware  of  his  danger,  begins  to  flatter  his  adversary,  say- 
ing in  his  most  conciliatory  tone,  "  O  king  of  beasts,  thou 
art  a  true  believer  like  me.  Do  not  touch  me,  for  the 
sake  of  Allah  and  of  Ali;  for  the  sake  of  my  children  and 
thy  children  let  me  go  in  peace,"  etc.,  etc.  The  result  of 
the  hunt  is  the  same  in  each  case,  but  the  method  is  sig- 
nificant of  the  characteristics  of  the  two  nations. 

And  so  we  asked  the  captain  to  tell  us  how  he  was  an 
unwilling  participator  in  a  lion  hunt  on  board  his  own 
steamer  in  1887.  "Well,  gentlemen,"  he  said,  "it  was 
such  an  unheard-of  experience  that  were  it  not  well  known 
to  all  in  Bagdad  I  should  hesitate  to  tell  it.  We  were 
making  our  usual  trip  to  Bassorah.  It  was  in  March  and 
full  water.  That  year  the  over-flooding  of  the  Tigris 
was  greater  than  usual,  the  water  spreading  on  both  sides 
of  the  bank  often  as  far  as  we  could  see.  In  this  sea  of 
muddy  water  only  occasional  islands  were  to  be  seen, 
formed  by  mounds  or  long  crests  marking  the  thrown-up 
sides  of  old  canals.  The  current  was  so  strong  that  with 
full  steam  I  worked  my  way  up  very  slowly,  hugging  the 
banks  to  keep  out  of  the  main  current.  Suddenly  from 
the  deck  came  the  cry  of  c  Lions  P  and  going  up  I  saw  in 
front  of  us  on  one  of  those  small  '  islands'  two  lion  cubs. 
We  always  have  on  board  a  small  supply  of  firearms  and 
ammunition.  These  were  quickly  taken  out  and  a  lively 


firing  began  from  the  deck  of  the  steamer,  and  both  cubs 
were  soon  killed.  A  boat  was  lowered  to  secure  our 
prizes.  I  was  on  the  upper  deck  and  in  full  view  of 
what  followed.  As  I  said,  the  current  was  strong,  and  the 
boat  with  our  sportsmen  and  their  rifles  had  tough  work 
getting  up  to  the  island.  Just  as  the  boat  was  about  to 
touch  the  shore  a  lioness  appeared  above  the  crest  on  the 
mainland,  and  she  was  also  shot  by  someone  in  the  boat. 
In  another  instant  the  head  of  a  huge  lion  appeared,  and 
to  our  consternation  he  dashed  into  the  water  and  struck 
out  for  the  boat.  For  a  few  seconds  disorder  reigned,  for 
the  last  shot  had  been  fired  at  the  lioness,  but  the  next 
moment,  recovering  their  presence  of  mind,  the  men  bent 
to  their  oars,  pulling  back  to  the  steamer  as  fast  as  they 
could,  with  the  current  now  in  their  favour — but  also  in 
favour  of  the  lion!  From  the  steamer  as  many  shots 
were  fired  as  could  be  without  risk  of  hitting  the  boat. 
In  the  meantime  there  was  an  awful  panic  on  board.  The 
steamer,  as  you  see,  sits  so  low  in  the  water  that  it  would 
be  nothing  for  the  lion  to  scramble  on  board.  The  cabin 
room  is  very  limited  and  the  deck  passengers  as  usual 
numbered  many  score.  Women  and  children  began  to 
wail  and  the  calmer  ones  attempted  to  build  barricades 
and  arm  themselves  with  iron  pots  and  other  utensils  that 
they  had  with  them.  I  slowed  down  and  steered  towards 
the  boat  as  it  came  alongside.  We  had  just  time  to  pull 
all  the  men  on  board  when  the  lion  too  came  up  along- 
side! The  panic  by  this  time  was  indescribable.  While 
we  were  busy  getting  the  men  and  their  rifles  in  from  the 
boat  the  lion  succeeded  in  getting  his  paws  onto  the 
steamer,  and  kept  his  hold,  although  I  had  at  once  ordered 
full  speed.  The  ammunition  was  quite  exhausted,  and 
until  more  could  be  brought  up  from  the  stores  below 
the  firearms  were  useless;  and  how  it  might  have  ended 
I  do  not  like  to  think,  had  not  the  Arab  pilot  secured 


1 84         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

an  axe  with  which  he  chopped  off  the  lion's  paws!  The 
huge  beast  dropped  into  the  river,  where  he  was  soon  shot 
by  those  who  had  by  this  time  loaded  their  rifles.  The 
steamer  was  then  stopped  and  the  boat  again  went  out 
to  bring  in  our  trophies,  and  the  skin  of  the  lion  was  pre- 
sented to  me  by  the  passengers.  You  have  seen  it  at  my 
house."  This  thrilling  story  gave  rise  to  others,  and  I 
remembered  the  experience  of  an  acquaintance  of  mine, 
an  Englishman,  Colonel  S. ,  inspector  of  the  Indo- 
European  Telegraph  Company  in  Persia.  It  was  in  the 
early  seventies.  One  morning  two  marches  out  from 
Shiraz  the  colonel  was  riding  slowly  along  in  the  rear  of 
his  caravan.  Without  other  warning  he  suddenly  felt 
his  horse  sink  on  its  haunches  as  if  under  a  great  weight. 
On  turning  he  saw  over  his  shoulder  the  head  of  a  lion, 
whose  teeth  and  claws  were  buried  in  the  horse's  croup! 
Not  losing  his  presence  of  mind,  the  colonel  seized  a  re- 
volver from  its  holster  and  planting  it  against  the  lion's 
ear  killed  it  on  the  spot. 

One  of  the  most  common  scenes  that  enliven  the  voyage 
are  the  numerous  herds  of  wild  boar  that  gallop  along 
the  bank  of  the  river  parallel  with  the  steamer  as  if  en- 
joying the  sport  of  racing  us.  Often  they  are  so  near  that 
a  shot  from  the  steamer  would  be  easy  enough,  but  as  the 
deck  passengers  are  mostly  Mohammedans,  to  whom 
bringing  on  board  the  unclean  swine  would  be  obnoxious, 
the  captain  forbids  all  such  sport.  One  day  we  saw  a 
very  unusual  sight.  One  of  the  pigs,  tired,  possibly,  of  the 
tame  sport  of  running  along  the  bank,  suddenly  plunged 
into  the  river  and  swam  across  right  in  front  of  the  bow 
of  our  steamer  and  so  close  that  a  shot  would  have  been 
sure.  These  awkward  creatures  seem  ill  fitted  for  swim- 
ming, but  this  fellow  held  his  course  in  spite  of  the  strong 
current  and  swam  across  without  any  apparent  diffi- 
culty. Living  in  Mohammedan  countries  one  does 


FROM    BAGDAD   TO   BASSORAH        185 

well  to  respect  the  prejudices  and  feelings  of  the 
people,  and  we  could  not  but  recognise  the  fairness  of  the 
captain's  attitude  in  forbidding  the  killing  of  pigs,  while 
regretting  being  deprived  of  the  sport.  Many  misunder- 
standings and  dangers  would  be  avoided  if  Europeans 
who  live  or  travel  in  Eastern  countries  would  have  more 
consideration  for  customs  and  beliefs  that  differ  from 
their  own. 

We  arrived  at  Bassorah  without  further  incident  than 
occasionally  grounding  on  a  sand-bar,  but  it  is  not  always 
that  the  trip  is  made  without  unpleasant  accidents. 

I  remember  once  in  May  we  were  overtaken  by  a  sand- 
storm. The  day  was  unusually  sultry,  and  the  captain, 
who  had  been  watching  the  barometer  by  night,  predicted 
something  out  of  the  ordinary.  We  retired  as  usual  to 
our  beds  on  the  upper  deck,  for  at  that  season  sleep  in  the 
hot  cabins  is  out  of  the  question.  It  was  a  bright  moon- 
light night,  not  a  cloud  in  the  sky  when  we  went  to  sleep. 
Suddenly  we  were  awakened  by  a  blast  of  burning  hot 
wind.  It  was  pitch  dark,  the  air  was  so  thick  with  sand 
as  to  be  suffocating,  and  not  even  the  lights  hanging,  as 
we  knew,  close  to  us  could  be  seen.  It  seemed  as  if  we 
would  be  swept  off  the  deck  by  the  violence  of  the  blast, 
and  with  one  arm  around  my  wife  I  clung  to  the  railing 
with  the  other,  and  there  we  stood,  literally  gasping  and 
choking.  We  dared  not  let  go  to  try  to  reach  the  ladder 
to  get  down  to  the  lower  deck  and  cabin.  Above  the 
roaring  of  the  wind  we  could  hear  the  shrieks  of  the  deck 
passengers,  whose  bedding  and  even  baggage  and  metal 
pots  were  swept  overboard.  Our  steamer  was  like  a  toy 
at  the  mercy  of  the  winds  and  seemed  to  us  to  be  spinning 
round  like  a  top.  Suddenly,  close  to  my  ear  I  heard  the 
voice  of  our  faithful  Mendoza,  who  by  a  miracle  had 
got  over  to  us,  saying, "  Hold  on,  sir,  hold  on,"  and  he,  too, 
clung  to  us  and  the  railing.  Taking  advantage  of  a  mo- 


i86         LIFE   IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

mentary  lull  the  three  of  us  worked  our  way  to  the  ladder 
and  got  down  to  the  lower  deck,  which  we  found  covered 
with  water,  and  finally  we  reached  our  cabin.  Gradually 
the  wind  dropped,  leaving  only  the  air  filled  with  sand 
that  slowly  settled,  the  light  began  to  break,  and  soon  the 
clear  sky  and  calm  moon  above  made  it  seem  as  if  we 
had  just  waked  up  from  a  nightmare.  When  it  became 
light  enough  to  see,  the  captain  discovered  that  we  were 
going  down  stream  instead  of  up  towards  Bagdad,  as  we 
should  have  been.  The  steamer  had  been  turned  com- 
pletely round  without  his  perceiving  it,  and  we  had  for 
some  time  been  going  back  towards  Bassorah.  These 
hot  sand-storms  are  among  the  most  dreaded  of  all  the 
evils  that  overtake  the  traveller  in  Arabia,  and  they  are 
often  the  cause  of  whole  caravans  perishing. 

At  the  spot  where  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  join  to 
form  the  mighty  Shatt-el-Arab  is  the  town  of  Kurna. 
This  place  was  established  in  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  as  a  barrier  between  the  Persians  on  one 
side  and  the  Arabs  on  the  other.  There  are  only  about 
five  hundred  houses,  customs,  telegraph  and1  residence 
of  a  governor.  There  is  a  Turkish  gunboat  guarding 
the  entrance  to  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  The  district 
of  Kurna  has  a  population  of  about  5,000,  and  its  specialty 
is  the  making  of  abas  (burnooses)  and  a  special  kind  of 
cheese.  The  cultivation  of  date  plantations  is  the  chief 
agricultural  industry.  Kurna  is,  according  to  tradition, 
the  site  of  the  Garden  of  Eden,  and  an  ancient  tree  is 
pointed  out  as  the  original  tree  of  the  "  knowledge  of 
good  and  evil."  The  branches  of  this  tree  are  covered 
with  fluttering  rags  hung  on  as  thank-offerings  for  prayers 
answered,  or  by  those  who  perhaps  have  come  from  a 
long  distance  to  ask  for  the  fulfilment  of  some  desire. 

Though  at  this  point  the  rivers  join  it  is  interesting  to 
note  how  for  some  distance  one  can  distinguish  the  two 


FROM    BAGDAD   TO   BASSORAH        187 

streams  by  the  cloudy  water  of  the  Tigris  and  the  blue, 
clear  water  of  the  Euphrates.  Near  this  spot  is  the  tomb 
of  Ezra,  over  which  is  a  small  mausoleum,  built  in 
the  time  of  Shah  Abbas.  To  this  tomb  pilgrims  of  Mo- 
hammedan sects  come  as  well  as  Christians  and  Jews. 

From  Kurna  begin  magnificent  date  groves  that  run 
along  both  sides  of  the  mighty  river  as  far  as  Bassorah, 
a  distance  of  ninety  miles.  Before  leaving  Turkish 
Arabia  I  must  say  a  few  words  about  the  date,  which  is  as 
much  a  part  of  the  life  of  the  country  as  the  camel.  Dates 
form  one  of  the  chief  items  of  export  as  well  as  the  food 
of  not  only  this  part  of  Arabia  but  of  many  places  along 
the  Persian  Gulf.  To  enumerate  all  the  uses  of  the  date 
palm  is  to  catalogue  almost  the  needs  of  the  everyday 
life  of  the  people.  From  dates  a  kind  of  vinegar  is  made 
and  an  alcohol  called  "  mastik."  From  the  pits  and  ref- 
use is  made  a  mixture  that  is  used  as  food  for  cattle,  from 
the  date  juice  a  syrup  or  molasses  is  obtained,  and  from 
the  fibre  ropes  and  strings  are  manufactured.  The  palm 
wood  is  used  for  nearly  every  purpose,  beginning  with 
the  wooden  beds  or  "  takhts "  and  ending  with  boats  and 
frames  for  the  "  agul "  to  be  used  as  window  screens. 
Finally,  the  pith  or  heart  of  the  tree  is  considered  a  table 
dainty  resembling  nuts  in  taste.  As  the  export  of  dates 
increases  annually  the  area  occupied  by  the  date  palms 
grows  each  year. 

The  cultivation  of  the  date  palm  demands  constant 
care.  The  soil  is  fertile  but  needs  irrigation  where — as 
in  most  cases — the  banks  of  the  Tigris  are  high;  the  water 
has  to  be  drawn  up  in  skins  by  a  primitive  but  ingenious 
contrivance  worked  by  animal  power.  The  depth  of  the 
gardens  running  along  the  banks  of  the  river  corresponds 
to  the  distance  that  the  water  thus  obtained  may  be  made 
to  run.  Where  the  banks  are  low  another  system  is  em- 
ployed, that  of  a  series  of  canals.  Palms  are  set  out  at  a 


i88         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

certain  distance  from  each  other,  about  one  hundred  be- 
ing planted  to  the  "djereba"  (a  little  over  an  acre), 
while  to  each  djereba  is  allotted  one  "  male "  tree,  all 
the  others  being  "  female."  The  male  tree  bears  no  fruit, 
but  the  pollen  is  taken  to  fertilise  the  female  tree,  that 
otherwise  would  bear  little  or  no  fruit,  and  that  of  an 
inferior  quality.  The  Arab  fellaheen  can  at  once  recog- 
nise the  kind  of  date  by  the  tree. 

In  April  or  May  the  artificial  fertilisation  is  made. 
Each  year  two  rows  of  leaves  are  added  to  the  palm  tree, 
while  the  lower  rows  begin  to  dry  and  are  cut  off  in  the 
autumn.  This  causes  the  characteristic  knotty  appear- 
ance of  the  palm  tree  trunk.  In  the  autumn  the  young 
shoots  of  the  female  tree  are  transplanted,  and  in  seven  or 
eight  years'  time  they  bear  fruit.  The  palm  trees  do  not 
reach  their  maturity  until  the  age  of  eighteen  years,  when 
a  good  tree  is  capable  of  bearing  from  sixty  to  three  hun- 
dred pounds  of  dates,  according  to  the  variety  of  the  tree. 
There  are  as  many  as  seventy  distinct  varieties,  each  bear- 
ing its  special  name.  The  most  delicate  varieties  are  un- 
fortunately unknown  to  the  European  market,  as  they  do 
not  bear  handling^  some  lose  their  aroma  and  decay 
within  two  days  after  picking.  Palm  trees  flourish  for 
from  sixty  to  seventy  years,  and  often  reach  a  height  of 
1 20  to  140  feet.  The  fruit  grows  in  huge  grape-like 
clusters,  some  bunches  weighing  twenty  pounds  or  even 
more.  In  the  springtime  the  gardeners  are  careful  to 
leave  only  as  many  clusters  as  can  mature  without  injury 
to  the  tree,  the  rest  being  cut  out.  As  the  bunches  are 
very  large  and  thick  the  dates  cannot  all  ripen  at  once,  but 
as  fast  as  the  outer  ones  are  ripe  they  are  removed  and 
then  the  others  come  on,  etc.  As  the  fruit  grows  in  the 
crown  of  the  high  trees  the  gardeners  have  to  climb  to 
the  very  summit  for  the  fertilisation  and  subsequent  work. 
It  is  exceedingly  interesting  to  watch  them  climb  up, 


FROM   BAGDAD   TO  BASSORAH        189 

using  the  uneven  bumps  left  by  the  leaves  as  steps.1  A 
broad  bit  of  leather  or  basket  work  is  arranged  as  a  seat, 
to  the  ends  of  which  a  rope  is  attached.  This  rope  he 
passes  around  the  tree  and  himself,  having  the  seat  to 
sit  against  or  to  support  himself.  Grasping  the  rope  on 
each  side  and  placing  one  foot  on  one  of  the  bumps,  he 
leans  forward  and  throws  the  rope  forward,  and  up  the 
tree  onto  the  next  unevenness.  He  then  braces  himself 
back  upon  the  seat,  so  holding  himself  by  his  own  weight. 
Drawing  up  the  other  foot  he  again  throws  the  rope  and 
makes  another  step,  in  this  way  climbing  to  the  top.  Long 
practice  makes  these  fellaheen  very  skilful,  and  to  watch 
the  rapid  and  seemingly  easy  way  in  which  they  climb 
up  and  down  a  tree  one  would  think  it  the  easiest  matter 
in  the  world.  But  when  any  of  us  tried  to  do  it  the  re- 
sult was  disastrous. 

1  A  good  story  is  told  in  Bagdad  of  a  vali,  or  governor,  who  was  sent 
from  Constantinople.  His  Excellency,  transplanted  from  the  delightful 
shores  of  the  Bosphorus,  suffered  greatly  from  the  climate  of  Bagdad.  One 
day  complaining  bitterly  of  the  heat,  he  was  told  that  the  intense  heat 
was  necessary  to  ripen  the  dates.  "  Then  have  every  date  palm  cut  down," 
ordered  the  exasperated  vali.  It  took  some  skill  the  story  adds,  to  pacify 
his  Excellency  and  to  get  him  to  countermand  the  order. 


CHAPTER  XI 
FROM   BASSORAH   TO   MUSCAT 

The  Date  Harvest — Cherdaks — Dates  as  an  Item  of  Export — Sabiehs 
or  Sabians,  Followers  of  John  the  Baptist — New  and  Old  Bassorah 
— S.S.  "Kilwa" — Mohammerah — Karun  Behmishahr — On  the  Bar 
— Somali  Fight — Bushire  Shark  Fishing — Bender-Abbas — Hardships 
of  the  Persian  Gulf — Dominions  of  the  Sultan  of  Oman — Muscat 
— Occupations  of  the  Inhabitants  of  Muscat — English  Gunboats — 
Commerce — Climate — Muscat  Lion. 

WE  arrived  at  Bassorah  just  at  the  period  of  date  gather- 
ing, when  ocean-going  steamers,  usually  English,  fill  the 
harbour  waiting  to  carry  their  freight  of  dates  to  Eng- 
land, Trieste,  Egypt  and  America.  At  this  season  the 
usually  quiet  gardens  are  animated.  During  nearly  three 
months  continual  work  is  carried  on,  under  booths  or 
"  cherdaks "  set  up  for  the  purpose.  'Here  dates  are  sorted 
and  packed  in  cardboard  boxes  which  are  then  put  in 
large  wooden  ones.  The  former  are  brought  from  Ger- 
many and  Austria  and  the  latter  from  Norway  and  Amer- 
ica. Both  kinds  of  boxes  are  brought  to  Bassorah  in 
sections  and  put  together  on  the  spot.  The  sorting  and 
packing  of  the  fruit  is  mostly  done  by  women,  who  come 
in  hundreds  for  the  date  season,  bringing  their  babies 
and  household  goods  and  settling  down  in  huts  made  of 
palm  or  reed  matting  built  by  them  in  the  date  gardens. 
While  working  all  these  people  are  fed  on  dates,  the 
stones  of  which  are  carefully  collected  for  a  most  un- 
usual purpose,  as  was  explained  to  us  on  the  spot.  They 
are  sent  to  Karachi,  in  India,  where  they  are  cut  in  two, 

190 


FROM   BASSORAH   TO   MUSCAT        191 

each  piece  taking  the  form  of  a  coffee  berry  and  easily 
passing  as  such.  They  are  then  used  to  adulterate  coffee; 
at  least  a  harmless  form  of  adulteration. 

Along  the  Shatt-el-Arab  is  an  Arab  tribe  known  as 
the  Muntifek,  who  live  by  farming  and  fishing.  The 
fishermen  pass  almost  as  much  of  their  time  in  the  water 
as  do  the  fish  they  catch.  During  flood-time  one  often 
sees  a  fisherman's  camp  on  a  small  bit  of  island  only  a 
few  yards  square.  The  fish  caught  are  kept  alive  in  a 
sort  of  wooden  cage  sunk  in  the  water.  In  this  part  of 
the  country  is  another  very  interesting  people  of  whom 
but  little  is  known.  They  call  themselves  Sabians  and  are 
followers  of  John  the  Baptist,  whom  they  call  "Nebi 
Yahya  "  (the  prophet  John).  Their  language  is  Syrian. 
They  live  quite  apart  from  the  surrounding  tribes  and 
perform  all  their  rites  in  secret,  avoiding  questions  as  to 
their  beliefs,  which  accounts  for  their  being  so  little 
known.  All  that  is  known  definitely  of  them  is  that  they 
consider  the  act  of  cleansing  in  running  water  to  be  a 
purification  for  sin,  a  christening  that  they  perform  sev- 
eral times  a  year.  Water  is  considered  as  sacred  and 
cleansing,  and  every  act  of  life  is  performed,  if  possible, 
in  it.  The  doctrine  of  "  clean  and  unclean  "  seems  to  be 
the  basis  of  their  belief.  They  do  not  eat  beef,  holding 
cattle  to  be  "  unclean."  Mutton  they  eat,  but  only  when 
the  sheep  have  been  killed  according  to  certain  forms  and 
in  water.  All  food  has  to  pass  through  water  before  being 
prepared.  Among  what  is  considered  unclean  are  wo- 
men and  dead  bodies.  Their  fear  of  polluting  themselves 
by  contact  with  the  dead  is  so  great  that  while  yet  alive 
a  sick  person  is  carried  and  laid  beside  the  already  pre- 
pared grave.  The  relatives  and  friends  then  sit  around 
waiting,  and  hardly  has  the  last  breath  left  the  dying  per- 
son when  the  body  is  rolled  into  the  grave  and  hastily 
covered. 


192         LIFE   IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST, 

They  believe  in  a  future  life,  and  for  forty  days  after 
a  death  pray  for  the  departed  soul.  They  have  a  priest- 
hood called  mullahs,  who  are  under  higher  ecclesiastics 
known  as  sheikhs.  The  priests  dress  in  white  and  wear 
green  wreaths  on  their  brows.  Most  of  the  Sabians  are 
artisans,  silversmiths  doing  work  much  like  that  found  in 
the  Caucasus.  In  the  province  of  Bassorah  it  is  esti- 
mated that  there  are  about  3,000  of  this  sect,  in  Amara 
1,000,  and  about  as  many  among  the  Muntifeks.  They 
are  very  devoted  to  their  religion,  resisting  all  at- 
tempts made  by  Mohammedans  to  convert  them  by  force. 
Little  has  been  done  among  them  so  far  by  Christian 
missionaries,  and  the  results  have  have  been  still  less,  I 
believe. 

We  are  finally  in  Basrah,  or  Bassorah,  a  modern  city 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  city 
are  to  be  found  near  the  small  town  of  Zobeir.  When 
Bagdad  was  a  world-renowned  city  old  Bassorah  was  the 
most  flourishing  port  in  the  East.  Finally  the  old  city 
followed  the  fate  of  its  sister  cities,  and  nothing  remains 
but  a  heap  of  ruins  among  which  rise  two  old  mosques  and 
a  bit  of  the  decayed  wall.  The  modern  Bassorah  is  a 
little  over  a  mile  from  the  western  bank  of  the  Shatt-el- 
Arab,  built  on  canals  that  are  filled  with  water  during 
the  hours  of  full  tide.  The  ebb  of  the  tide  leaves  these 
canals  empty,  exposing  the  black  bottom,  that  emits  a 
fearful  stench  in  the  hot  season.  Communication  is  made 
by  means  of  boats  that  are  punted,  and  one's  plans  for 
visiting  and  going  about  have  to  be  made  with  regard 
to  the  tide.  Most  of  the  European  residences  as  well  as 
business  places  are  built  along  the  river  front  and  form 
a  connecting  link  between  the  Shatt-el-Arab  and  the  city 
proper. 

In  the  eighth  century  the. population  of  Bassorah  was 
as  numerous  as  160,000,  but  plague,  floods  and  wars 


FROM   BASSORAH  TO   MUSCAT        193 

have  reduced  it  and  now  there  are  hardly  more  than 
20,000  inhabitants. 

The  climate  of  Bassorah  is  unhealthful  and  unpleasant. 
The  dampness  makes  the  heat,  though  less  in  degree,  more 
unbearable  than  that  of  Bagdad.  In  addition  there  are 
no  serdabs,  as  a  cellar  of  three  feet  in  depth  reaches  water. 
The  inhabitants  dine  and  sleep  on  the  roof  as  in  Bagdad, 
but  it  is  impossible  to  do  so  without  an  awning.  The  dew 
is  so  heavy  as  to  soak  clothing  that  may  happen  to  be 
set  outside  the  roof-like  awning  placed  over  the  beds. 
The  climate  of  Bassorah  can  be  judged  from  the  fact  that 
natives  of  means  go  to  Bagdad  as  a  relief  during  the  hot 
season! 

Bassorah  is  the  port  for  ocean  steamers,  as  boats  drawing 
twenty-one  feet  can  go  up  the  entire  length  of  the  Shatt- 
el-Arab.  The  difficulty  to  navigation  is  found  farther 
down  in  the  bar  formed  at  the  entrance  to  the  Persian 
Gulf  by  the  immense  quantities  of  sand  carried  down  by 
the  Shatt-el-Arab.  Steamers  therefore  are  obliged  to 
take  only  a  part  of  their  cargoes  at  Bassorah,  the  rest 
being  sent  down  to  the  bar  in  native  sailing  boats. 

Here  we  take  leave  of  the  good  captain  of  the  "  Cali- 
f ah  "  and  go  on  board  the  "  Kilwa,"  a  steamer  of  some 
9,000  tons,  once  a  mail-boat,  now  carrying  cargo,  mostly 
dates.  We  find  ourselves  with  the  entire  first-class  ac- 
commodation at  our  disposal,  as  there  are  no  other  pas- 
sengers. A  little  below  Bassorah,  at  a  small  place  called 
Feleh,  the  Shatt-el-Arab  forms  the  dividing  line  between 
two  empires,  Turkey  and  Persia.  On  the  right  or  Turk- 
ish bank  is  an  unbroken  line  of  date  palms  and  gardens, 
whereas  on  the  Persian  side  only  occasional  clusters  of 
palms  or  cultivated  spots  are  to  be  seen.  At  Moham- 
merah  the  river  Karun,  remarkable  as  being  the  only 
navigable  river  in  Persia,  enters  the  Shatt-el-Arab.  In 
ancient  times  the  Karun  had  its  own  navigable  outlet, 


194         LIFE   IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

the  Bamishir,  that  flowed  into  the  Persian  Gulf,  running 
parallel  with  the  Shatt-el-Arab.  This  stream  is  now  ac- 
cessible only  to  small  native  craft,  but  could  easily  be 
made  deep  enough  for  navigation.  The  Karun  river, 
formed  by  the  Susian  and  Laristan  watersheds,  is  navi- 
gable as  far  as  the  town  of  Ahwaz,  a  distance  of  about  sixty 
miles.  Here  high  cliffs  form  waterfalls  making  a  barrier 
to  ships.  Remains  are  to  be  found  of  a  complicated 
system  of  irrigating  canals.  The  Karun  river  is  infested 
with  sharks  that  find  their  way  up  from  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Here  is  Fao,  with  a  Turkish  fortification  just  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Shatt-el-Arab.  An  hour  and  a  half  more 
and  the  flat  palm-fringed  shores  disappear  and  we  cross 
the  bar,  where  we  cast  anchor,  waiting  for  the  boats  to 
bring  down  the  remainder  of  our  cargo. 

For  some  reason  they  are  late  and  only  by  the  next 
morning  they  begin  to  flock  around.  They  cleverly  come 
alongside,  and  the  loading  begins  on  the  lee  side  of  the 
ship,  the  boats  lying  up  in  order  as  they  arrive,  one  after 
the  other,  in  such  a  way  that  as  one  is  emptied  it  slips 
out  and  the  next  in  turn  takes  its  place.  On  each  boat 
are  from  ten  to  twelve  Arabs,  many  of  them  Somalis, 
strong,  muscular  fellows  without  an  ounce  of  extra  flesh, 
and  many  of  them  quite  six  feet  tall.  Their  clothing  con- 
sists of  a  loin-cloth,  and  in  spite  of  the  burning  rays  of 
the  sun  their  heads  are  uncovered.  Perhaps  "  uncovered  " 
is  hardly  the  word,  for  the  thick,  woolly  hair  must  form 
a  good  protection  to  what  we  afterwards  had  proof  of 
being  an  extraordinarily  thick  skull. 

All  went  well,  the  Arabs  working  fast  with  jokes  and 
songs,  until  suddenly  the  wind  changed.  The  captain 
then  gave  orders  to  continue  loading  from  the  other  and 
now  sheltered  side  of  the  ship.  In  making  the  change 
the  boats  that  had  been  the  last  in  the  waiting  row  now 
slipped  in  first.  The  men  in  the  boats  that  had  arrived 


FROM   BASSORAH   TO   MUSCAT        195 

the  earliest  and  had  the  right  to  be  unloaded  first  natu- 
rally protested.  The  protests  were  at  first  verbal  and  given 
with  a  volubility  possible  only  to  an  excited  Oriental. 
From  words,  however,  they  soon  came  to  blows,  and  there 
followed  a  fight  such  as  I  have  never  seen  before  nor  since. 
The  Arabs  threw  themselves  into  the  water  and  swam  to 
the  offending  boats,  which  they  boarded,  and  then  began 
a  hand-to-hand  tussle.  They  at  first  used  only  the  weapons 
nature  had  given  them — they  struck,  kicked,  bit  and  tore 
each  other's  hair.  Then  they  got  hold  of  anything  they 
could  find,  oars,  poles,  and  we  saw  these  splintered  to 
bits  over  the  unprotected  heads  and  bodies  of  the  Arabs. 
Blood  flowed  so  freely  as  to  make  the  decks  slippery,  but 
we  saw  none  of  the  serious  consequences  one  would  ex- 
pect from  the  violence  of  the  blows  and  the  thickness  of 
the  sticks.  Occasionally  a  man  feeling  he  was  getting  the 
worst  of  the  fight  would  dive  overboard,  a  pink  spot 
marking  the  place  where  he  disappeared.  He  would 
come  up  and  take  refuge  on  a  friendly  boat,  where  he 
would  examine  his  wounds  and  after  regaining  his  breath 
he  would,  if  fit,  go  back  to  the  fray.  Sometimes  the 
fight  would  go  on  between  two  or  more  in  the  water,  where 
they  would  try  to  drown  each  other.  Soon  oars  and  poles 
came  to  an  end  and  they  tore  down  bits  of  the  rigging,  and 
finally  our  Lascar  sailors,  who  were  watching  with  the 
greatest  excitement  and  were  in  sympathy  with  one  of 
the  sides,  began  to  throw  down  into  their  boats  anything 
that  they  could  find  that  would  serve  as  weapons. 

Matters  began  to  be  very  serious  and  the  sight  was  a 
sickening  one.  The  excitement  was  spreading  among  our 
sailors  and  our  captain  felt  he  must  interfere.  He  there- 
fore ordered  the  hose  to  be  brought  out  and  directed  a 
stream  of  water  impartially  on  the  fighting  mass.  Though 
the  force  of  water  was  very  great  and  would  often  stagger 
a  man,  it  did  not  have  the  expected  result,  and  the  fight 


196         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

went  on  until  it  stopped  of  itself,  when  both  parties  were 
exhausted  and  no  one  left  who  was  able  to  continue.  As 
soon  as  the  blows  ceased  the  captain  sent  down  and  had 
the  more  seriously  wounded  brought  up  on  our  deck. 
There  was  no  doctor  with  us,  but  the  first  mate  had  a  sup- 
ply of  medicine  and  a  rough  knowledge  of  surgery  com- 
bined with  a  delight  at  having  someone  on  whom  to 
practise  it.  And  this  time  he  had  patients  to  his  heart's 
content!  Most  of  the  wounds  were  bruises  and  cuts  in 
the  head.  To  everybody's  astonishment  not  a  bone  was 
found  to  be  broken,  though  I  myself  saw  poles  as  large 
around  as  my  arm  broken  in  two  over  the  head,  shoulders 
or  uplifted  arm  of  the  Arabs.  They  themselves  paid  no 
attention  to  any  wounds  except  severe  ones  on  the  head, 
only  trying  to  stop  violent  bleeding  with  the  bandages 
furnished  by  the  captain.  Those  with  cuts  in  the  head, 
a  dozen  or  more  men,  gathered  around  the  mate  in  front 
of  the  latter's  cabin.  The  amateur  surgeon  seated  himself 
on  his  camp-stool,  steadying  between  his  knees  the  head 
of  his  patient,  who  squatted  on  the  deck.  We  watched  with 
interest  and  wonder  the  proceedings.  On  shaving  the 
hair  the  skin  of  the  scalp  was  found  to  be  of  such  enor- 
mous thickness  that  no  ordinary  needle  would  pierce  it. 
Nothing  daunted,  the  mate  produced  a  huge  curved  needle 
used  in  sewing  sacks  and  sails.  This  we  saw  him  stick 
into  the  skin  and  then  push  it  with  as  much  force  as  if  he 
were  mending  a  shoe!  The  patient  in  the  meantime 
never  blinking,  but  blissfully  pulling  at  a  cigarette  fur- 
nished him  by  the  interested  bystanders.  Not  a  groan 
did  we  once  hear  from  any  of  the  patients,  though  some 
of  the  rough  operations  must  have  been  exceedingly  pain- 
ful if  the  men  possessed  nerves.  The  nearest  they  ever 
came  to  complaint  was  to  ask  "  if  he  would  soon  finish." 
Only  one  man  was  very  badly  hurt,  an  old  greybeard, 
who  lay  for  hours  unconscious  in  the  bow  of  his  boat,  and 


FROM  BASSORAH  TO   MUSCAT        197 

even  when  we  left  we  were  not  sure  that  he  had  regained 
consciousness.  The  Arabs  did  not  seem  inclined  to  have 
our  would-be  doctor  examine  him  and  he  was  left  to 
nature.  After  a  rest  and  wash  the  work  began  again, 
nearly  all  the  wounded  taking  part,  and  soon  jokes  and 
laughter  were  heard  as  if  nothing  had  happened  to  dis- 
turb their  good  relations. 

By  evening  we  had  finished,  and  the  next  day  we  spent 
anchored  before  Bushire.  From  Karachi  up  to  Bushire 
there  is  not  one  good  harbour.  In  most  places  the  ships 
are  obliged  to  anchor  in  the  open  sea  some  miles  from 
shore,  where,  if  windy,  boats  are  unable  to  come  out  with 
cargo,  and  often  several  days'  delay  is  thus  caused  and 
great  discomfort,  for  nothing  is  so  trying  to  even  a  moder- 
ately good  sailor  as  the  tossing  of  a  ship  at  anchor.  Bu- 
shire is  no  exception.  There  are  two  harbours,  the  first 
five  miles  from  shore,  the  second  two  miles,  where  the 
ships  anchor  according  to  the  weather  or  their  draught. 

Bushire  is  a  contraction  of  "Abu-Shahr"  (father  of 
cities),  so  named  by  its  founder,  Nadir  Shah,  who  built  it 
in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  intending  it 
as  the  base  for  Persian  exports  in  the  Gulf.  Bushire  has 
never  been  a  strategic  base,  but  it  has  been  and  still  is  an 
important  port,  giving  an  outlet  to  the  products  of  the 
interior  of  Persia.  It  carries  on  a  lively  commerce  with 
China,  England,  India  and  the  ports  of  the  Gulf,  receiv- 
ing sugar,  manufactured  goods,  flour,  timber,  tea,  coffee, 
steel  and  iron  goods;  while  sending  out  tobacco,  dates, 
opium,  cheese  and  carpets. 

The  city  lies  along  a  narrow  sandy  strip  separated  from 
the  mainland  by  marshy  land  and  having  in  the  back- 
ground a  range  of  mountains.  The  water  is  very  shallow 
all  along  the  shore.  North  of  Bushire  from  the  mountain 
pass  of  Kazeroun  begins  the  mountain  plateau  of  Iran, 
through  which  passes  the  caravan  road  to  Shiraz. 


198         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

The  population  of  Bushire  is  estimated  to  be  from 
15,000  to  18,000.  The  climate  is  hot  and  can  hardly  be 
considered  as  healthful.  There  are  no  serdabs  as  in  Bag- 
dad, but  every  house  has  its  ventilating  shaft,  or"  badgir," 
which  to  some  degree  cools  the  rooms. 

As  we  had  before  been  in  Bushire  and  there  was  noth- 
ing of  interest  to  see,  we  did  not  go  ashore. 

All  about  the  steamer  we  could  see  sharks  swimming 
in  the  clear  water,  watching  for  what  might  be  thrown 
out  by  the  cooks.  It  occurred  to  us  to  try  our  luck  at 
catching  them,  and  one  of  the  ship's  officers  set  to  work. 
He  brought  a  large  thick  hook,  fastened  it  to  a  strong 
tarred  line  and  put  on  as  bait  a  three-pound  fish.  For 
fully  an  hour  we  patiently  waited,  watching  the  sharks 
swimming  about  the  tempting  but  suspicious-looking 
bait.  Finally  one  made  a  dart  and  seized  it.  We  began 
to  draw  in  our  line,  but  the  monster  pulled  and  struggled 
so  that  he  bent  the  hook,  strong  as  it  was,  slipped  off  it  and 
disappeared.  This  failure  did  not  discourage  us.  The 
mate  found  a  larger  hook  quite  as  thick  as  one's  finger,  and 
this  time  we  soon  saw  a  shark  bite.  Just  as  success  seemed 
ours  he  got  off,  hook  and  all.  Our  blacksmith  then 
turned  out  a  third  hook,  to  which  a  stronger  line  was  at- 
tached, and  we  at  last  succeeded  in  catching  a  small  shark 
about  four  and  a  half  feet  long.  It  was  weirp1  to  see  with 
what  intense  hatred  the  Lascars  pounced  upon  this,  the 
enemy  and  dread  of  all  seamen.  They  began  to  beat  and 
cut  the  fish,  and  the  captain  had  sternly  to  stop  their  tor- 
turing the  living  fish  and  ordered  its  head  chopped  off  and 
then  thrown  into  the  sea. 

There  is  a  curious  fact  connected  with  sharks.  Euro- 
peans hesitate  to  bathe  in  many  places  infested  by  sharks 
that  have  been  known  to  attack  them,  whereas  Arabs  of 
the  Somali  type  and  Negroes  are  untouched.  At  the 
island  of  Bahrein,  where  pearl-fishing  is  carried  on,  the 


FROM  BASSORAH  TO   MUSCAT        199 

natives  dive  freely  for  pearls,  and  the  times  when  they  are 
molested  are  very  rare.  About  Aden  the  same  thing  has 
been  noticed,  and  I  have  heard,  as  an  explanation  of  this 
fact,  the  theory  given  that  it  is  the  smell  of  the  vegetable 
oils  with  which  the  natives  so  freely  anoint  themselves 
that  keeps  the  fish  off.  Sharks  have  been  known  to  go 
up  the  river  Tigris  as  far  as  Bagdad. 

Speaking  of  sharks  reminds  me  of  a  curious  event  that 
took  place  in  1906  when  we  were  in  Constantinople.  A 
shark  became  entangled  in  a  large  fishing  net  in  the  Bos- 
phorus  and  was  brought  ashore  and  exhibited  for  several 
days  for  a  small  sum.  This  shark  was  fifteen  feet  long. 

After  taking  in  our  cargo  and  two  first-class  passengers 
we  left  for  the  next  Persian  port,  Bender-Abbas  (port 
of  Abbas) . 

In  the  olden  times  this  was  a  well-known  port  under 
the  name  Camrun  or  Camroon,  and  received  its  present 
name  only  from  the  time  of  the  Persian  Shah  Abbas. 

Owing  to  the  shorter  caravan  routes  through  Bushire 
and  the  river  communication  from  the  Tigris  to  Bushire 
the  importance  of  Bender-Abbas  has  given  way  to  that 
of  Bushire.  At  the  present  time  only  the  Yezd  and  Ker- 
man  caravans  use  Bender- Abbas  as  their  terminus.  Here 
are  brought  sugar,  manufactured  goods,  metal  and  glass 
ware,  and  from  Bender-Abbas  are  exported  the  famous 
Kerman  carpets,  shawls,  silk  goods,  dates,  fish  and  cheese. 
As  a  harbour  Bender-Abbas  affords  little  shelter,  as  the 
long  island  of  Kishm  does  not  afford  protection  from  the 
prevailing  winds,  and  owing  to  the  shallowness  of  the 
water  ships  are  obliged  to  anchor  two  or  three  miles  off 
the  shore.  The  city  is  miserable  and  dirty  and  the  cli- 
mate very  trying,  especially  during  the  hot  season.  All 
who  have  means  to  do  so  go  out  during  the  summer 
months  to  a  small  village  some  ten  miles  back  from  the 
city  among  the  mountains.  The  only  drinking  water 


200         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

is  what  is  gathered  in  cisterns  during  the  rainy  season. 
Throughout  the  town  are  several  huge  cisterns  for  com- 
mon use,  and  most  houses  have  their  own  private  ones  be- 
sides. During  the  dry  hot  months  this  water  naturally 
becomes  unfit  for  use,  having  a  disagreeable  taste  and 
odour,  and  is  probably  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  sick- 
ness that  gives  Bender-Abbas  the  reputation  of  being  one 
of  the  most  unhealthful  places  in  the  gulf. 

Some  sixty  miles  east  of  Bender-Abbas  lies  the  fertile 
oasis  of  Menab.  Thanks  to  plentiful  springs  of  water 
some  of  the  best  date  palms  are  found  here,  as  well  as 
other  fruit  trees  peculiar  to  such  a  climate. 

During  a  previous  voyage  we  had  visited  Bender- 
Abbas  under  conditions  almost  costing  us  our  lives.  We 
were  on  one  of  the  British  India  mail  steamers  that  stop 
at  various  ports.  The  second  mate  always  went  ashore 
in  one  of  the  ship's  boats  with  the  mails,  even  if  there  were 
no  other  business,  and  he  invariably  invited  my  wife  and 
me  to  accompany  him.  This  we  did,  glad  to  see  a  little 
of  some  of  these  rarely  visited  spots.  It  was  in  June,  a 
hot,  absolutely  cloudless  day.  The  captain  tried  to  per- 
suade us  to  give  up  our  trip,  as  the  steamer  was  anchored 
nearly  four  miles  from  the  shore  and  the  barometer 
showed  the  near  approach  of  a  violent  change  of  weather. 
Our  curiosity  to  see  the  place  and  belief  in  our  own 
powers  of  weather  prophecy  were,  however,  greater  than 
our  prudence  or  faith  in  the  captain,  so  we  started. 

Arriving  at  the  miserable  little  town  we  took  the  mail 
bag  to  the  post  office  close  by.  Though  we  were  inside 
the  building  but  a  few  minutes,  on  coming  out  we  were 
amazed  to  see  what  a  change  had  taken  place  in  the 
weather.  The  sky  was  black,  and  in  an  instant  so  violent 
a  wind-storm  came  up  that  our  waiting  boat  was  cast 
upon  the  beach. 

Deafening  peals  of  thunder  followed,  and  the  heavens 


FROM   BASSORAH  TO   MUSCAT        201 

opened  to  such  a  torrent  of  rain  as  only  falls  in  these 
tropical  lands.  In  a  few  seconds  we  had  not  a  dry  thread 
on  us. 

Over  and  over  again  our  little  boat  was  launched ;  the 
sailors  pulled  bravely,  but  it  was  again  thrown  upon  the 
sand.  Finally,  with  the  help  of  the  crowd  that  in  spite  of 
the  storm  had  gathered  about  us,  we  succeeded  in  getting 
off.  The  waves  rose  like  mountains  before  us,  the  rain 
continued  to  pour,  and  it  almost  seemed  as  if  we  were 
going  to  certain  destruction.  Our  steamer  could  not  be 
seen,  and  though  our  men  worked  hard  we  made  but  little 
headway.  On  rising  to  the  crest  of  a  wave  we  would 
look  eagerly  for  the  steamer,  but  in  the  darkness  she  was 
not  to  be  seen,  though  we  could  hear  the  whistles  that  were 
given  to  guide  us.  The  mate  with  set  teeth  sat  at  the  rud- 
der, while  my  wife  and  I  bailed  out  the  water,  that  was 
above  our  ankles,  and  as  an  hour,  and  then  two,  passed  we 
began  to  fear  that  the  steamer  had  given  us  up  at  last 
and  gone  on.  We  could  not  keep  from  thinking  of  an 
incident  of  this  kind  which  the  captain  told  us  took  place 
not  long  since  at  Bender-Abbas.  How  after  waiting  a 
long  time  and  steaming  about  he  had  gone  on  and  the 
boat  had  never  been  heard  of.  Every  time  our  boat 
paused,  as  it  seemed  an  eternity,  on  the  crest  of  a  wave 
before  plunging  down  into  the  yawning  valley,  it  seemed 
to  us  that  she  could  never  survive.  Finally  a  shout  was 
raised,  we  saw  the  steamer,  and,  thus  encouraged,  our  men 
pulled  with  renewed  vigour  and  we  were  soon  alongside. 
It  was  impossible  to  get  up  the  gangway,  so  it  was  not 
even  lowered  for  us,  but  we  were  pulled  up,  boat  and  all, 
and  landed  on  deck,  a  streaming,  soaked  party.  The  cap- 
tain could  not  refrain  from  saying  "  I  told  you  so,"  but 
was  very  kind  and  active  in  getting  us  below,  and  had  a 
hot  punch  made  for  us  and  doses  of  quinine  served  out 
to  the  boat's  crew.  A  wetting  in  these  climes  is  far  more 


202         LIFE   IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

dangerous  than  in  colder  countries,  and  it  is  apt  to  cause 
fever.  We,  however,  were  none  the  worse  for  our  ex- 
perience. 

I  cannot  omit  saying  a  few  words  of  the  bad  name  the 
Persian  Gulf  very  justly  has.  September  is  trying,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  hot  months,  when  even  in  India  the  voy- 
age is  looked  upon  as  dangerous,  in  spite  of  double  awn- 
ings, punkahs,  and  so  on.  The  temperature  remains  about 
90  degrees,  even  in  the  night,  while  by  day  it  rises  to 
above  100  degrees.  If  during  the  great  heat  the  wind  is 
with  the  ship  the  suffering  is  very  great,  even  among  the 
Lascar  sailors,  and  often  orders  are  given  to  turn  about 
and  steam  back  for  an  hour  against  the  wind  to  give  a 
little  relief.  Cases  of  death  by  heat  apoplexy  even  at 
night  take  place  during  the  hot  months.  No  help  is  to  be 
had  from  cold  baths,  for  the  water  is  warmer  than  the 
temperature  of  the  body. 

Muscat,  our  next  stopping  place,  is  the  capital  of  Oman, 
the  land  of  the  Sultan  or  Imam,  as  the  natives  call  him, 
of  Oman.  About  2,000  is  considered  to  be  the  population 
of  Oman,  as  nearly  as  can  be  estimated.  In  the  sixteenth 
century  the  Portuguese  occupied  the  port  for  a  time,  but 
were  driven  out  in  1648.  In  the  eighteenth  century 
Oman  came  under  the  power  of  Nadir  Shah,  who  forced 
the  Imam  of  Oman  to  pay  him  a  yearly  tribute.  After 
the  death  of  Nadir  Shah  the  Arabs  of  Oman  regained 
their  liberty  under  Ahmed  ben  Said,  the  founder  of  the 
present  dynasty  of  sultans. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  Oman 
fleet  was  the  most  powerful  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  At 
that  time  the  inhabitants  of  the  littoral  of  Oman  lived 
almost  entirely  by  piracy.  This  was  carried  on  to  such 
an  extent  that  the  East  India  Company  made  three 
armed  expeditions  against  the  Oman  pirates,  in  1809, 
1819,  and  1821,  when  the  English  finally  captured  two 


FROM   BASSORAH   TO   MUSCAT        203 

hundred  pirates  and  forced  the  sultan  to  sell  his  frigates 
and  corvettes.  At  that  period  the  Sultan  of  Oman  ruled 
over  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Arabian  peninsula  and  down 
to  Zanzibar,  but  after  the  death  of  Ben  Said  the  kingdom 
was  divided,  the  elder  son  receiving  Oman  and  the 
younger  Zanzibar.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  their  com- 
mercial interests  depended  upon  the  safety  of  ships  in 
the  Persian  Gulf  the  English  were  justified  in  establishing 
their  control  over  Oman.  The  East  India  Company 
therefore  made  a  treaty  with  Sultan  Said  according  to 
which  piracy  and  slave  trade  were  abolished  and  the 
sultan  received  a  subsidy  from  the  Company,  which  is 
continued  by  the  present  English  Government.  There 
is  an  English  political  agent  at  Muscat,  who  is  the  ad- 
visor to  the  sultan,  and  the  power  of  the  latter  to  a  certain 
degree  is  but  nominal. 

Oman  is  not  the  poor  country  that  a  glance  at  the  map 
would  lead  one  to  suppose.  Back  of  the  bare  volcanic 
range  of  mountains  that  border  the  sea  are  fertile  valleys, 
and  with  irrigation  the  country  would  yield  great  riches. 
Corn,  wheat,  oats,  tobacco,  coffee  and  indigo  are  exported, 
and  in  the  interior  are  large  date  plantations.  Cattle  also 
are  raised  and  sheep,  while  the  Oman  asses  are  famous 
throughout  Arabia.  A  commerce  is  carried  on  in  horses, 
that  are  obtained  from  the  Bedouin  of  the  Nedj,  the 
cradle  of  the  Arab  and  of  the  Arab  horse.  Mines  of  cop- 
per and,  it  is  said,  of  gold  are  to  be  found  in  the  moun- 
tains. There  are  in  some  towns  of  Oman  skilled  artisans 
who  make  gold  and  silver  filigree  work.  All  the  chief 
towns  are  on  the  coast,  wherever  convenient  harbours 
are  to  be  found.  A  few  miles  from  the  capital,  Muscat, 
which  has  a  population  of  30,000,  is  the  town  and  port 
of  Matra,  estimated  to  have  a  population  of  20,000.  Aside 
from  these  principal  ports  are  some  secondary  commer- 
cial seaside  towns,  Kur,  Fanal,  Tnaz,  Sokhar  and  others. 


204         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

The  inhabitants  of  these  sea  ports  are  born  seamen  and 
fishermen.  Salt  fish  is  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  export, 
being  taken  in  large  quantities  to  India  and  even  to  Aus- 
tralia. They  have  their  own  home-made  boats,  in  which 
they  fearlessly  go  out  for  long  distances,  venturing  even 
as  far  as  Bombay,  though  many  are  the  fatal  voyages. 

The  date  export  trade  is  large  and  almost  exclusively 
with  America.  Also  reed  mats  and  cheese  are  exported. 
In  exchange  Oman  receives  from  abroad  manufactured 
goods,  tea  and  sugar.  The  climate  of  Oman  is  one  of  the 
hottest  in  the  world,  and,  at  least  that  along  the  seacoast, 
the  most  trying.  There  are  only  two  seasons,  the  hot 
and  cool.  We  were  to  enter  Muscat  before  sunrise,  and 
we  were  all  on  deck  betimes.  As  we  approached  the 
seemingly  unbroken  mountain  range  there  was  no  sign 
of  Muscat,  and  it  was  only  when  quite  near  that  we  saw 
a  narrow  passage  that  led  us  into  the  awful,  almost  land- 
locked harbour.  The  hills  on  every  side  rose  black  and 
bare,  reflecting  so  strongly  the  heat  they  had  absorbed 
during  the  day  that  as  we  stood  on  deck  it  was  hard  to  be- 
lieve we  were  not  under  the  rays  of  a  hot  sun — though 
it  was  before  sunrise!  As  we  looked  around  it  seemed 
as  if  we  were  in  a  pond  with  almost  perpendicular  walls 
of  steep  black  rocks  rising  three  to  seven  hundred  feet, 
the  city  itself  being  along  a  narrow  strip  of  sand  between 
the  sea  and  the  hills  that  rise  straight  up  behind  it.  At 
the  entrance  of  the  port  and  at  various  places  perched 
high  on  the  rock  are  remains  of  watch  towers  and  forts 
built  by  the  Portuguese  when  they  were  masters  of  the 
Persian  Gulf.  The  flat-roofed  houses  are  small,  with  the 
exception  of  the  "  palace  "  of  the  sultan  and  the  house  of 
the  English  resident.  We  cast  anchor  close  to  the  shore, 
where  we  had  a  full  view  of  the  tiny  place,  and  what 
at  once  arrested  our  attention  was  a  most  unusual  sight 
A  large  house,  that  of  the  British  resident,  they  told  us, 


FROM   BASSORAH   TO   MUSCAT        205 

had  only  three  sides!  The  entire  sea  front  was  open  like  a 
doll's  house.  From  the  deck  of  the  steamer  we  could  there- 
fore see  the  inside  of  every  room  of  the  house,  and  even 
the  poor  consul  himself  as  he  sat  at  his  table.  It  seemed 
that  a  few  days  previously  the  entire  sea  wall  of  the  badly 
built  house  had  slid  down,  leaving  the  consul  to  lead  this 
exposed  life!  The  harbour  was  quite  lively,  a  number 
of  craft  of  various  kinds  being  there  and  an  English 
gunboat  that  is  stationed  at  Muscat  constantly.  Though 
the  sailors  are  all  Indians  and  the  gunboat  is  changed 
every  six  months,  yet  so  unhealthful  and  trying  is  the  heat 
that  nearly  every  voyage  there  are  cases  of  suicide,  insan- 
ity or  heat  apoplexy,  we  were  told. 

At  the  invitation  of  the  United  States  consul  we  went  to 
lunch  with  him  on  shore  and  have  a  look  at  the  town. 
Though  accustomed  to  Eastern  cities,  Muscat  proved  un- 
like anything  we  had  yet  seen.  Owing  to  the  small  space 
between  the  mountains  and  the  sea  upon  which  to  build 
the  town,  the  streets  are  so  narrow  that  while  sitting  at 
the  open  window  of  the  American  consulate  we  could 
with  a  cane  touch  the  wall  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
street.  No  horses  are  kept  in  the  city  and  few  donkeys, 
the  stables  of  the  sultan  and  rich  people  being  in  a  valley 
back  of  the  town.  The  filth  and  heat  in  the  streets,  owing 
to  their  narrowness,  surpass  that  of  most  Oriental  towns. 
The  people  met  in  the  streets  are  of  the  most  varied  types. 
One  sees  Indians,  Negroes,  Arabs,  Persians  and  Turks, 
but  no  Europeans.  When  we  were  in  Muscat  there  were 
but  two  Europeans  living  there,  the  British  resident  and 
the  United  States  consul,  who  was  a  Scotchman. 

Muscat  left  a  very  unpleasant  impression  upon  us,  and 
the  stories  told  of  the  heat  by  the  two  unfortunate  Euro- 
peans whom  we  met  made  us  realise  that  there  were 
worse  places  than  Bagdad  to  live  in.  There  are  no  ser- 
dabs,  no  gardens  to  give  refreshing  green,  and  the  heat 


206         LIFE   IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

of  the  day  has  to  be  passed  in  the  closed  rooms.  At  sun- 
set when  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  go  up  on  the  roof 
there  is  not  much  relief,  for  the  radiation  of  the  heat 
from  the  sun-baked  rock  all  around  makes  it  almost  un- 
bearable. We  were  assured  that  what  we  had  taken  as 
a  legend  of  the  Gulf  was  a  fact,  namely,  that  many  peo- 
ple have  their  servants  sprinkle  them,  bed  and  all,  several 
times  during  the  night  with  watering  pots! 

The  Oman  Government  is  on  a  most  patriarchal  sys- 
tem, the  decisions  being  made  in  disputed  cases  by  the 
imam  according  to  the  tenets  of  the  Koran.  We  were 
in  Muscat  when  the  imam  had  established  a  most  original 
form  of  punishment.  In  a  strong  room  he  had  a  lion 
chained  in  such  a  way  that  the  beast  could  almost  reach 
the  opposite  wall.  When  a  prisoner  considered  as  de- 
serving of  such  punishment  was  brought  before  the 
imam,  the  lion  was  starved  for  a  couple  of  days,  and  then 
the  unfortunate  man  was  chained  in  the  one  corner  of  the 
room  that  the  lion  could  not  quite  reach.  With  roars  of 
rage  the  hungry  lion  would  spring  at  the  man,  who  by 
flattening  himself  against  the  wall  only  just  escaped  the 
claws  and  open  mouth  of  the  huge  beast.  This  torture 
was  continued,  according  to  the  gravity  of  the  crime, 
from  a  few  hours  to  a  couple  of  days,  and  instances  were 
given  of  the  wretched  prisoner  going  mad.  Later,  owing 
to  the  influence  of  the  British  resident,  this  cruel  punish- 
ment was  abolished. 

We  left  Muscat  with  feelings  of  relief,  and  were  once 
more  impressed  with  the  truth  often  forced  upon  us  dur- 
ing our  five  years  in  these  hot  lands,  that  human  beings 
are  able  to  adapt  themselves  to  almost  every  condition, 
even  to  those  that  are  seemingly  impossible. 


CHAPTER  XII 

BOMBAY,    CASTES,    AND    THE   TOWERS    OF   SILENCE 

Bombay,  its  Significance — Variety  of  Nationalities — From  the  "  Sla- 
vansky  Bazaar  "  to  Watson's  Hotel — History  and  Development  of 
Caste — Laws  of  Manu — Principle  of  Preserving  Race  of  the  Con- 
querors Distinct — Marriages — Caste  as  Seen  To-day,  and  its  Effect 
on  Daily  Life — English  Feeling  of  Caste  towards  Natives — History 
of  Bombay — Parsis — Similarity  of  Russian  and  Indian  Styles  of  Ar- 
chitecture— Personal  Reminiscences — Tower  of  Silence — My  Ac- 
quaintance with  Parsis — Baku  and  the  Eternal  Fire — Zoroaster, 
his  Teaching — Zend  Avesta — Traces  of  Zoroastrianism  in  the  Per- 
sian Religion — Gabars,  their  Former  and  Present  State  in  Persia — 
"  Mobeds,"  "  Andjuman  " — Rites  and  Ceremonials — Shah  Abdul 
Azim  near  Teheran — Ruins  of  Rei  and  Tower  of  Silence. 

OUR  steamer  approaches  Bombay,  the  second  city  of  im- 
portance in  India  after  Calcutta.  The  harbour  is  the 
finest  on  the  Indian  coast.  Here  are  brought  the  riches 
of  the  entire  world,  from  Europe,  America,  Egypt, 
Turkey,  Arabia  and  Persia.  The  harbour  is  full  of 
steamers  and  craft  of  all  sizes  and  descriptions,  that  fly 
the  flags  of  nearly  every  nation.  As  soon  as  the  anchor 
is  dropped  the  usual  bustle  and  hurry  begins,  passengers 
leave,  and  we  soon  find  ourselves  in  the  custom-house 
A  more  motley  crowd  or  greater  babel  of  tongues  it  would 
be  hard  to  imagine.  One's  eye  has  scarcely  time  to  take 
in  one  picture  before  another  is  presented;  and  the  ear 
hardly  finds  time  for  conscious  hearing  of  the  various 
tongues:  familiar  European  words  mingle  with  guttural 
Arabic  or  liquid  Persian,  and  then  sounds  of  languages 
quite  unfamiliar  to  my  modest  linguistic  powers.  This 

207 


ao8         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

babel  is  not  surprising  if  one  takes  the  trouble  to  remem- 
ber that  the  people  of  India  speak  150  dialects,  derived 
from  twenty  languages  that  are  divided  into  three  main 
groups:  the  Ario-Indian,  spoken  by  221,000,000  (Hin- 
dus, Bengalis,  Marethas,  etc.),  Dravidian,  the  dialects 
of  which  are  spoken  by  56,500,000,  and  finally  the  Tibeto- 
Burman,  spoken  by  9,500,000. 

Here  we  see  an  Englishman  talking  with  a  Brahmin, 
there  an  excitable  Frenchman  gesticulating  and  trying 
to  explain  something  in  broken  English  to  a  dignified 
Parsi;  yonder  a  Brahmin,  calmly  smoking  a  cigar,  is  lis- 
tening to  a  turbaned  individual.  Not  far  from  us,  perched 
on  a  post,  is  an  almost  naked  Indian,  squatting  with  his 
knees  drawn  up  to  his  chin,  clasping  them  by  long  sinewy 
arms.  He  looks  just  like  an  ape,  as  indeed  for  some 
seconds  we  take  him  to  be.  All  this  changing  crowd  and 
babel  of  tongues  begins  to  go  to  one's  head,  and  we  gladly 
finished  the  customs  formalities  and  found  ourselves 
driving  to  Watson's  Hotel,  situated  in  the  European  part 
of  the  town.  In  the  vestibule  of  the  hotel  my  wife  and 
I  happened  to  exchange  a  word  in  Russian  and  were 
startled  to  hear  our  tongue  spoken  by  a  gentleman  ad- 
dressing us  in  Russian.  He  proved  to  be  one  of  the  hotel 
men,  whom  the  tide  of  fortune  had  thrown  upon  these 
far-away  shores — from  the  Moscow  "  Slavansky  Bazaar  " 
to  Watson's  Hotel,  Bombay! 

Our  rooms  opened  out  onto  a  veranda  commanding 
a  view  of  the  University  Square  and  an  imposing  clock 
tower,  the  latter  being  the  gift  of  a  rich  Parsi  to  the  city. 

At  the  period  of  which  I  write  Watson's  Hotel  was 
the  best  in  Bombay,  but  in  many  ways  it  seemed  primitive 
enough.  Owing  to  the  Anglo-Indian  custom  of  having 
servants  travel  with  one  they  did  not  keep  a  sufficient 
staff  of  waiters,  and  had  we  not  our  own  faithful  men 
we  should  have  joined  those  who  complained  of  the  lack 


BOMBAY,  CASTES,  TOWERS  OF  SILENCE  209 

of  service.  Yet  there  seemed  to  be  any  number  of 
servants,  but  as  each  one  could  only  do  a  certain  class  of 
work  there  was  no  making  anything  out  of  the  chaos. 
One  would  bring  water,  a  second  sweep  the  rooms,  a 
third  make  the  beds,  etc.  This  was  our  first  experience 
with  caste  as  seen  in  everyday  life,  this  evil  which  has 
struck  such  deep  roots  all  over  India  as  to  have  even 
touched  the  English  themselves,  though  they  are  uncon- 
scious of  it.  Of  the  274,000,000  inhabitants  of  India, 
207,000,000  are  Hindus,  caste-observing  people,  62,500- 
ooo  are  Mohammedans,  9,500,000  Buddhists,  aboriginals 
8,500,000,  Christians  2,000,000,  and  the  remainder  are 
Parsis,  Jews  and  other  smaller  sects. 

If  we  add  to  the  Hindus  the  Buddhists  also  observing 
castes,  though  under  a  different  definition,  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  "good  and  evil"  spirits,  we  have  over  218,000,- 
ooo  of  the  inhabitants  under  this  heavy  yoke. 

The  caste  principle  dates  back  3,000  years,  and  had  its 
origin  in  Brahminism,  and  Brahma  is  the  central  figure 
of  its  system.  It  grew  originally  out  of  the  racial  dis- 
tinctions when  the  earliest  Aryan  emigrants  settled  in 
India.  The  pure  Aryan  issuing  from  the  Creator's  mouth 
is  the  Brahmin.  The  fighting  caste,  or  Kshatrjyas, 
sprang  from  the  arms  of  Brahma,  the  Creator.  Vaisya, 
the  agriculturist  issuing  from  the  loins  of  Brahma,  form 
the  third  caste,  while  the  lowest  in  the  social  scale,  the 
degraded  Sudra,  are  regarded  as  coming  from  the  Crea- 
tor's feet.  This  last  and  lowest  caste  is  by  far  the  most 
numerous  one. 

The  full  development  of  the  rules  regarding  caste  was 
given  much  later  in  the  Code  of  Manu,  supposed  to  have 
been  written  five  hundred  years  before  Christ  by  the 
mythical  Brahmin  sage  of  that  name. 

Manu  took  the  ground  that  the  only  measure  by  which 
the  handful  of  conquerors  could  be  kept  from  being  as- 


similated  by  the  preponderating  masses  was  by  raising 
rigid  and  immovable  barriers  to  separate  them.  Inter- 
marriage between  persons  of  different  castes  was  for- 
bidden. The  breaking  of  this  law  was  punishable  by 
social  ostracism,  loss  of  all  rights  and  property.  Those 
thus  excluded  from  their  caste  became  pariahs  and 
formed  a  mixed  caste.  The  code  of  Manu  gave,  however, 
in  some  instances,  more  liberal  interpretation  of  this  law 
— for  instance,  in  cases  where  a  Hindu  took  to  himself  a 
wife  of  a  lower  caste.  In  such  circumstances  only  the 
children  of  such  a  wife  belonged  to  the  lower  caste.  If, 
however,  a  woman  married  into  a  lower  caste  she  was 
forever  excluded  and  remained  a  pariah. 

The  next  law  in  the  code  of  Manu  provides  for  the 
complete  isolation  of  the  castes  in  everyday  life.  This 
is  brought  about  by  the  law  forbidding  one  caste  to  eat 
with  those  of  another,  or  to  touch  anything  belonging  to 
them.  The  most  degraded  of  the  pariah  caste  were 
obliged  to  live  apart  from  all  others  and  to  have  a  special 
sign  by  which  they  could  be  recognised  and  avoided. 
They  were  only  allowed  to  keep  dogs  and  donkeys,  no 
other  domestic  animals,  and  dressed  in  clothing  obtained 
from  corpses.  Fourteen  per  cent,  of  the  inhabitants  of 
India  at  present  are  said  to  belong  to  these  lower  castes. 

As  a  special  privilege  polygamy  is  permitted  to  the 
highest  castes,  while  the  Sudras  are  not  allowed  more 
than  one  wife.  The  number  of  wives  permitted  is  also 
according  to  the  caste.  Brahmins  may  have  four  wives, 
Kshatriyas  three  and  Vaisyas  two.  The  marriage  cere- 
mony also  differs  in  pomp  according  to  the  caste.  Suttee, 
or  self-immolation  of  widows  at  the  cremation  of  their 
husbands,  was  practised  mostly  among  the  Brahmin  caste. 
The  English  Government  met  with  great  difficulty  in 
abolishing  this  custom,  and  in  spite  of  severe  laws  occa- 
sional instances  are  still  met  with  at  the  present  time. 


BOMBAY,  CASTES,  TOWERS  OF  SILENCE  211 

But  in  spite  of  barriers  and  castes  the,  laws  of  nature 
would  have  their  course,  and  mixed  marriages  have  dur- 
ing the  centuries  taken  place  often  enough  to  influence 
in  some  degree  the  types.  As  time  went  on  other  changes 
took  place  in  the  law  governing  castes,  giving  rise  to  many 
smaller  castes.  Such  were  formed  with  each  new  pro- 
fession or  occupation,  so  that  one  could  almost  define 
castes  as  being  corporations.  Other  shadings  in  the  caste 
life  are  based  on  religious  beliefs  forming  sects,  etc. 

In  spite  of  all  these  changes  and  modifications  caste  is 
to-day  a  great  institution  with  which  the  British  Govern- 
ment has  to  deal.  It  complicates  every  branch  of  admin- 
istration. On  the  march  the  commissariat  department  has 
to  have  it  in  view — railway  carriages  must  be  furnished 
for  the  various  castes.  In  times  of  famine  and  epidemic, 
particularly,  the  obstacles  of  food  and  isolation  raised  by 
the  caste  rules  are  hard  to  overcome. 

The  Anglo-Indian  has  to  keep  a  large  number  of  serv- 
ants, thanks  to  caste.  For  no  money  will  the  butler  be- 
hind your  chair  sweep  your  room.  The  cook  will  not 
carry  water  nor  the  coachman  groom  the  horse  nor  cut 
its  grass.  The  caste  spirit  has  even  had  some  influence 
on  other  religions  in  India,  even  upon  the  Mohamme- 
dan and  Christian.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  so- 
called  Syrian  Christians,  who*  adopted  Christianity  in 
the  sixth  century,  belong  to  the  highest  caste,  while  the 
rest  of  the  native  Christians  are  considered  as  belonging 
to  the  lower  castes. 

In  their  attitude  towards  natives  the  English  have, 
probably  quite  unconsciously,  adopted  the  caste  feeling. 
Anglo-Indian  society  holds  itself  as  distinct  from  the 
natives  as  if  a  wall  of  caste  surrounded  them.  A  native 
may  rise  to  the  rank  of  officer,  but  the  European  officers' 
mess  is  closed  to  him,  and  with  few  exceptions  he  will  not 
be  invited  to  dine. 


chantment  grew.  A  tropical  night  comes  back  to  my 
memory.  We  were  driving  among  the  gardens  of  Mal- 
abar hill  to  a  dinner.  My  wife's  modern  evening  dress 
and  my  dress  suit  seemed  to  me  strangely  out  of  place 
under  the  shadow  of  the  stately  pines  and  the  fragrance 
of  the  hot  Eastern  night.  I  can  see  the  lights  of  the  luxu- 
rious bungalow,  the  bright  dinner  table,  the  soft-footed 
native  servants  in  picturesque  dress  and  snowy  turbans; 
the  broad  veranda1  leading  into  the  garden  enticingly 
lighted  with  coloured  lanterns,  which,  however,  lost  all 
charm  when  the  hostess's  voice  was  heard  cautioning  some 
one  to  keep  to  the  well-lighted  paths,  as  a  cobra  had  just 
been  seen  there — all  this  comes  back  to  me  to-day  as  if  it 
were  but  yesterday,  and  with  a  charm  that  the  Orient  can 
never  lose  for  those  who  have  once  known  it.  I  remem- 
ber another  dinner  in  a  circle  of  hospitable  Scotchmen. 
The  same  Eastern  atmosphere,  native  servants,  but  dur- 
ing the  dinner  a  Scotchman  in  kilts  walked  around  the 
table  discoursing  sweet  music  (to  the  Scotchmen  at 
least)  on  the  national  bagpipe.  The  English  have  to  a 
very  remarkable  degree  succeeded  in  blending  the  com- 
forts and  order  of  the  English  home  with  the  charm  of 
the  Orient,  both  in  the  style  of  buildings  and  in  their  life. 

The  day  after  we  arrived  we  were  reminded  that 
European  civilisation  had  permeated  here,  under  the 
form  of  a  cabman's  strike!  The  discontented  procession 
massed  in  the  square  in  front  of  our  hotel,  but  they  were 
orderly  and  absolutely  silent.  We  saw  a  police,  or  gov- 
ernment agent  of  some  kind,  ride  up,  towering  above  the 
crowd  from  the  back  of  a  camel.  He  addressed  a  few 
words  to  the  people,  waving  the  short  stick  he  carried, 
and  in  a  few  moments  the  crowd  melted  away  as  silently 
as  it  had  formed,  and  before  an  hour  had  passed,  the 
cabmen  were  at  their  posts  as  if  nothing  had  happened. 

One  afternoon  was  spent  in  the  horse  market,  where 


BOMBAY,  CASTES,  TOWERS  OF  SILENCE  21$ 

are  to  be  found  the  horses  brought  down  the  Gulf  from 
Arabia,  as  well  as  others  from  Australia  and  England, 
and  where  sportsmen  from  all  over  India  gather. 

Among  the  many  interesting  features  of  Bombay  is  the 
great  "  Tower  of  Silence,"  where  the  Parsis  expose  their 
dead  to  be  eaten  by  vultures.  In  driving  there  we 
passed  the  Christian,  Mohammedan  and  Hindu  ceme- 
teries, in  the  latter  of  which  we  saw  signs  of  a  cremation 
just  being  completed. 

The  Tower  of  Silence  is  outside  the  town  and  is  a  huge 
round  stone  building.  There  is  but  one  entrance  to  the 
tower,  and  that  is  opened  only  when  the  priests  carry  in 
a  corpse.  On  the  top  of  the  tower  were  perched  large 
numbers  of  the  huge  repulsive  birds,  some  of  which,  on 
seeing  our  party  approach  the  grounds,  slowly  sailed 
about  over  our  heads,  anticipating  probably  that  we  had 
brought  them  a  feast!  We,  of  course,  were  not  allowed 
to  enter  the  grounds,  nor  did  we  ask  to  do  so ;  it  was  suffi- 
ciently gruesome  seeing  these  birds. 

The  Parsis  have  always  had  for  me  a  special  interest, 
being,  as  they  are,  the  remnants  of  one  of  the  oldest  reli- 
gions ;  and  I  have  happened  to  come  in  contact  with  them 
both  in  Russia  and  Persia,  as  well  as  India. 

My  first  acquaintance  with  Parsis  was  in  Baku,  in  the 
early  seventies,  when  our  petroleum  industry  first  began. 
At  that  time  travellers  visiting  Baku  were  not  drawn  so 
much  by  the  interest  of  seeing  the  petroleum  works,  as 
in  visiting  the  source  of  the  "  eternal  fire  "  and  the  tem- 
ple of  the  fire  worshippers.  This  temple  was  a  small 
square  building  surmounted  by  a  dome  and  having  small 
towers  at  the  corners.  It  was  built  just  over  the  spot 
where  the  gas  brought  through  one  of  the  towers  seem- 
ingly issued  from  the  earth,  and  burned  in  several 
flames.  There  was  a  sort  of  altar  on  which  stood  plates 
with  bits  of  sugar,  and  here,  too,  were  the  lights  that  were 


216         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

never  extinguished.  Two  priests,  or  Mobeds,  sent  from 
Bombay,  served  in  the  temple.  For  a  small  sum  they 
would  sing  and  chant  and  then  give  each  visitor  a  piece 
of  sugar.  Owing  to  the  belief  in  the  miraculous  origin 
of  the  fire,  Baku  was  considered  to  be  the  most  sacred 
place  of  the  Parsis,  and  was  called  by  them  the  "  City 
of  the  Rose." 

My  second  acquaintance  with  these  people  was  in 
Teheran.  A  certain  Manukchi  Lemdji  Sahib,  a  Parsi 
gentleman,  who  has  done  much  for  his  coreligionists  in 
Persia,  gave  me  much  information  concerning  the  teach- 
ings of  Zoroaster,  or  Zardusht,  and  of  the  customs  and 
rites  of  the  Parsis.  Finally,  while  living  in  Meshed, 
in  1891,  I  succeeded,  after  much  difficulty,  in  obtaining 
for  the  Parsi  merchants  of  Kerman  the  right,  hitherto 
denied  them,  of  passing  through  the  sacred  Mohamme- 
dan city  of  Meshed  on  their  way  to  Transcaspia  in  view 
of  establishing  direct  commercial  relations.  As  a  token 
of  their  appreciation  of  my  efforts  in  their  behalf  the 
council  of  Parsi  elders,  living  in  Kerman,  sent  me  at  the 
Persian  New  Year,  "  No-ruz,"  an  illuminated  manuscript 
addressed  in  Persian. 

As  the  Parsis  may  not  be  known  to  all  those  into  whose 
hands  this  book  may  fall,  I  think  that  my  readers  may 
not  object  if  I  share  with  them  some  of  my  notes  and 
reminiscences  concerning  these  most  interesting  people. 

Zoroaster,  Zardusht,  or  Zoradusche,  was  born  about 
800  years  before  Christ,  as  many  scholars  think,  in  or  near 
Urumiah  in  the  northwest  part  of  Persia.  iVery  little  is 
known  of  his  life.  His  religion  came  as  a  protest  against 
paganism.  The  basis  of  his  teaching  was  a  pure  mono- 
theism, a  belief  in  one  supreme,  formless,  all-powerful, 
merciful  and  just  Being,  worthy  of  all  adoration.  His 
teaching  was  further  founded  on  the  worship  of  this  Be- 
ing, good  deeds,  and  eschewing  evil. 


BOMBAY,  CASTES,  TOWERS  OF  SILENCE  217 

Zoroaster,  however,  introduced  the  dual  powers  of 
good  (creating)  and  evil  (or  destroying),  under  the 
names  of  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman.  Fire  and  light  are 
the  attributes  of  the  former  and  darkness  of  the  latter. 
Zoroaster's  teaching  further  includes  the  doctrine  that 
all  that  happens  to  man  is  for  the  best.  The  chief  duties 
of  man  are  love  to  his  neighbour,  goodness,  and  hospi- 
tality. His  teachings  are  found  in  the  Zend  Avesta  and 
consist  of  small  parts,  the  most  important  being  the  "  Ven- 
didad"  and  "Yasna."  The  former  is  composed  of  the 
revelations  of  Zoroaster  and  the  second  of  prayers.  In 
the  Avesta  are  also  to  be  found  treatises  on  philosophy, 
astronomy,  medicine,  etc. 

In  the  sixth  century  before  Christ  all  Persia  professed 
the  religion  of  Zoroaster,  which  was  at  its  height  during 
the  Sassanian  dynasty  from  227  to  636  A.D.,  but  after 
this  time  it  began  to  be  crushed  out  by  the  new  religion, 
that  of  Mohammed,  that  came  to  conquer  by  the  sword. 

Many  find  the  idea  of  sun  worship  in  the  present  cus- 
tom observed  in  most  large  Persian  cities,  of  the  daily 
music  in  the  "Nehareh  Khana,"  or  music  houses.  These 
are  built  on  a  high  roof,  and  as  the  sun  is  sinking,  and 
until  the  last  rays  have  faded,  weird  music  is  discoursed. 
The  musicians,  with  drums  and  long  trumpets,  such  as 
we  see  in  pictures  illustrating  the  fall  of  the  walls  of 
Jericho,  solemnly  march  round  the  roof  as  they  play. 
The  same  is  done  at  sunrise.  The  custom  of  counting 
their  new  year,  or  "No-ruz,"  at  the  time  of  the  vernal 
equinox,  is  perhaps  also  to  be  traced  to  the  same  source. 

The  followers  of  Zoroaster  remained  true  to  their 
faith  during  the  Greek  conquest  under  Alexander  the 
Great,  but  they  were  unable  to  withstand  the  fanatical 
spirit  of  Mohammedanism.  The  majority  of  the  few 
who  remained  faithful  to  the  old  faith  removed  to  In- 
dia, and  particularly  to  Bombay.  Here  we  find  them  as 


2i8         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

Parsis,  a  prosperous,  intelligent  class,  in  whose  hands  is 
found  most  of  the  banking  and  commercial  business  of 
Bombay.  Many  of  the  Parsis  have  had  English  college 
education  and  have  achieved  success  in  science.  They 
are  justly  proud  of  the  fact  that  among  their  people  are 
neither  paupers  nor  prostitutes.  Many  benevolent  and 
educational  institutions  in  Bombay  testify  to  the  public 
spirit  of  the  Parsis,  and  they  are  loyal  subjects  to  the 
British  crown. 

Quite  different  is  the  fate  of  their  coreligionists  in 
Persia,  where  they  are  generally  known  as  "  Gabers," 
and  I  shall  use  this  term,  though  in  Persia  it  is  one  of  in- 
dignity, as  signifying  "  unfaithful."  The  Parsis  call 
themselves  "  Zardusht,"  or  Farsis,  and  Parsis.  There  are 
not  over  11,000  of  these  people  now  to  be  found  in  Per- 
sia. The  largest  colony  of  about  8,000  is  in  Yezd,  2,000 
in  Kerman  and  only  300  in  Teheran,  while  a  few  are 
scattered  in  Shiraz,  Kashan  and  Kum. 

One  cannot  but  feel  a  strong  admiration  for  this  hand- 
ful of  ancient  people,  who,  amidst  adverse  circumstances, 
have  keptj  pure  their  faith,  though  living  among  the 
fanatical  Moslem  Persians.  The  time  when  the  murder 
of  a  Parsi  passed  unpunished  hardly  belongs  to  ancient 
history,  and  the  forcible  abduction  of  Parsi  girls  into  a 
harem  was  of  common  occurrence.  Until  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century  the  Parsis  were  greatly  restricted 
in  their  rights.  In  the  bazaars  they  were  not  allowed  to 
touch  anything,  as  the  touch  of  an  "  unfaithful "  was  pol- 
lution ;  they  were  not  allowed  to  build  two-storied  houses, 
and  were  forced  to  wear  a  dress  that  distinguished  them 
from  Mohammedans,  so  that  the  latter  could  avoid  inad- 
vertently touching  these  unclean  beings. 

A  special  tax  was  imposed  upon  them  in  common  with 
other  non-Moslem  Persian  subjects.  They  could  not 
ride  horses,  only  donkeys,  and  even  then  were  obliged 


BOMBAY,  CASTES,  TOWERS  OF  SILENCE  219 

to  dismount  when  meeting  a  Mullah  or  Moslem  of  any 
distinction.  In  more  ancient  times  their  limitations  were 
even  greater.  It  was  only  in  the  latter  half  of  the  past 
century  that  the  position  of  the  Parsis  began  to  improve. 
This  change  was  due  to  the  efforts  of  their  coreligionists, 
in  Bombay,  among  whom  were  many  rich  Parsi  gentle- 
men who  did  not  hesitate  to  sacrifice  large  sums  in  pres- 
ents to  Persian  officials.  Thanks  to  their  efforts  and  also 
to  the  English  representatives  in  Persia  in  the  eighties  of 
the  last  century,  the  Gabers  were  exempted  from  their  ex- 
tra taxes  and  were  given  religious  freedom.  Some  ten 
years  later  they  obtained  the  right  of  dressing  in  all  col- 
ours except  green,  which  is  regarded  as  the  sacred  colour 
of  the  Mohammedans.  Owing  to  these  new  privileges 
they  were  able  to  follow  their  commercial  instincts  with 
more  freedom.  Their  shrewd  practical  business  capacity 
and  their  honesty  enabled  them  to  profit  by  this  freedom, 
and  one  already  meets  with  rich  merchants,  although 
even  now  they  are  not  permitted  entrance  to  cities  con- 
taining Mohammedan  shrines  of  importance.  As  I 
mentioned  above,  it  was  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that, 
in  1901,  I  obtained  permission  for  a  few  of  these  mer- 
chants to  pass  through  Meshed  on  their  way  to  Russia. 

During  the  past  thirty-five  years  other  concessions  have 
been  made;  they  are  permitted  to  have  a  representative 
at  Teheran  and  to  establish  their  own  schools,  the  first  they 
have  had  during  the  Persian  dominion. 

How  purely  and  intelligently  the  teachings  of  Zo- 
roaster are  observed  by  the  Gabers  in  Persia,  I  am  unable 
to  say.  It  is  very  possible,  that  living  for  1,200  years 
among  a  Moslem  people  has  not  failed  to  affect  their 
religious  observances. 

Their  religious  teachers  are  called  Mobeds,  but  they 
do  not  seem  to  possess  sufficient  influence  to  uphold  their 
authority,  and  in  attempting  to  do  so  they  are  hampered 


220         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

by  the  fact  that  any  one  not  wishing  to  submit  to  them 
can  easily  join  the  Mohammedans.  The  Andjuman,  the 
members  of  which  are  chosen  by  the  colony,  has  consid- 
erable power  in  matters  concerning  civil  laws. 

The  doctrine  of  pure  and  impure  has  a  large  place  in 
the  teachings  of  Zoroaster,  and  most  complicated  ablu- 
tions are  enjoined  in  case  of  pollution  from  contact  with 
what  is  "  impure."  These  are  divided  into  "  great "  and 
"  small "  purifications.  The  lesser  purification  is  de-f 
manded  for  the  many  smaller  pollutions,  which  in  every- 
day life  cannot  be  avoided.  The  "great"  purification 
is  only  needed  in  exceptional  cases,  as,  for  example,  after 
contact  with  a  corpse.  It  is,  however,  considered  advis- 
able to  perform  the  greater  purification  at  least  once  in 
a  lifetime.  This  is  performed  by  the  Mobed  in  a  build- 
ing set  apart  for  the  purpose,  and  the  ceremony  continues 
nine  days,  during  which  time  the  individual  going 
through  the  rite  cannot  leave  the  premises,  and  all  food  is 
brought  to  him  by  the  Mobeds.  During  the  purifica- 
tions, instead  of  water  the  urine  of  bulls  is  used. 

At  the  birth  of  an  infant  astrologers  are  called  in  to 
cast  the  horoscope  of  the  new-born  babe.  Between  the 
ages  of  seven  and  fifteen  a  ceremony  answering  to  that 
of  confirmation  takes  place,  when  the  boy  or  girl  is  ini- 
tiated into  the  religious  community.  Marriages,  as  is 
common  in  the  East,  take  place  at  a  very  early  age.  It 
is  not  unusual  to  see  married  boys  of  fifteen  and  girls  of 
twelve:  The  marriage  ceremony  resembles  that  of  the 
Mohammedans  in  .that  the  bride  herself  does  not  take 
part.  Her  substitute  performs  the  necessary  formalities, 
and  though  the  contract  is  drawn  up  in  the  presence  of 
the  Mobeds,  it  is  more  civil  in  character  than  religious. 
The  Mobed  reads  aloud  the  obligations  to  be  undertaken 
by  both  parties,  in  which  wifely  obedience  has  a  large 
part,  and  then  invokes  the  blessing  of  Heaven,  after  which 


BOMBAY,  CASTES,  TOWERS  OF  SILENCE  221 

sugar  and  sweets  are  passed  around  and  the  ceremony  is 
at  an  end.  Polygamy,  owing  probably  to  Moslem  in- 
fluence, is  occasionally  met  with,  but  not  often.  The  re- 
mains of  the  fire  temples  are  to  be  found  in  various  parts 
of  Persia,  as  in  Takhti  Suleyman,  Nakshi  Rustem,  and 
mounds  of  ashes  about  the  plain  of  Urumiah.  At  pres- 
ent their  worship  is  held  in  some  modern  buildings  where 
the  perpetual  fire,  believed  to  have  been  handed  down 
from  the  time  of  Zoroaster,  is  carefully  tended.  During 
the  ceremony  verses  from  the  Avestas  are  chanted. 

As  to  the  "Towers  of  Silence,"  I  have  only  once  had 
occasion  to  see  them  in  Persia.  Some  six  miles  southeast 
of  Teheran  is  one  of  the  numerous  Moslem  Shiite  shrines, 
that  of  Shah  Abdul  Azim.  To  this  place  on  Fridays  a 
motley  crowd  of  Persians  may  be  seen  flocking,  some  to 
pray,  others  for  a  sort  of  picnic.  At  the  present  time 
there  is  a  railroad  over  the  short  distance,  the  first  and 
only  one  in  Persia.  Near  this  place  is  a  miraculous 
spring  that  owes  its  origin  to  Ali,  and  is  therefore  known 
as  the  "  Cheshme  Ali,"  or  "  Spring  of  Ali."  On  the 
rocks  near  this  spring  is  a  sculpture  representing  Fehti 
Ali  Shah  seated  on  a  throne  and  surrounded  by  courtiers. 
A  rock  also  is  shown  bearing  the  impress  of  Ali's  foot. 
Thanks  to  the  modern  popularity  of  this  spot  the  ruin  of 
"  Rei  "  or  "  Rei  Tower  "  is  kept  in  mind.  This  was  the 
ancient  Median  capital,  and  is  one  of  the  several  cities 
that  claim  to  be  the  birthplace  of  Zoroaster.  It  was 
known  in  Biblical  times  as  "  Ragha." 

At  the  present  time  the  ruins  are  represented  only  by 
a  heap  of  brick  and  mortar,  where  one  can  pick  up  bits 
of  broken  pottery  and  sometimes  even  choice  pieces  giv- 
ing the  reflet  metallique  so  much  prized  by  connois- 
seurs of  porcelain.  The  tower  that  forms  part  of  what 
was  the  citadel  was  restored  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Near  the  tower,  also  on  the  face  of  the 


rocks,  is  a  bas-relief  representing  Fehti  Ali  Shah  on  Horse- 
back, slaying  a  lion.  Unfortunately  this  sculpture  was 
carved  on  an  older  one  representing  a  Sassanian  king. 
Fehti  Ali  Shah  had  this  obliterated  to  make  room  for  his 
own  picture,  but  fortunately  pictures  of  the  former 
sculpture  are  preserved  to  us  by  older  travellers. 

On  the  hills  to  the  east  of  the  ruins  of  Rei  is  to  be 
found  the  tower  of  silence  of  the  Gabers,  probably  one 
of  the  most  ancient  in  existence.  It  resembles  the  one  I 
saw  later  in  Bombay  in  that  it  is  a  round  whitish  tower, 
but,  unlike  the  latter,  possesses  no  door,  as  the  Gabers  fear 
Mohammedan  desecration.  The  corpse  is  therefore 
lifted  over  by  means  of  ladders  and  ropes.  By  climbing 
the  hill  one  can  get  a  good  look  down  into  the  interior  of 
the  tower.  The  place  where  the  dead  bodies  are  exposed 
is  divided  into  equal  squares,  about  seven  feet  each  way, 
as  far  as  one  could  judge  at  that  distance.  As  the  touch 
of  a  corpse  is  pollution,  special  persons  are  set  apart  for 
the  duty  of  receiving  and  undressing  the  corpses.  After 
each  burial,  if  it  can  be  so  called,  they  are  obliged  to  pur- 
ify themselves,  and  in  cases  when  one  of  them  leaves  the 
profession,  he  has  to  go  through  the  nine  days'  purifica- 
tion. The  body,  having  been  undressed,  is  laid  upon  the 
receptacle  for  the  corpses,  and  left  there  to  the  vultures 
that,  during  the  ceremony,  wheel  about  in  anticipation 
of  their  horrid  feast.  In  ancient  times  the  corpses  were 
given  to  wild  beasts  and  dogs,  the  latter  even  now  taking 
a  prominent  part  in  the  ceremony  connected  with  the 
dead.  In  Persia,  where  dogs  are  looked  upon  as  un- 
clean, it  is  difficult  to  get  a  Gaber  to  talk  about  this  cus- 
tom of  introducing  dogs  to  exorcise  the  evil  spirit. 

When  a  Parsi  is  about  to  die,  the  Mobeds  read  prayers 
of  repentance  of  sins,  and  the  ceremony  of  extreme  unc- 
tion consists  in  wetting  the  lips  with  consecrated  bulls' 
urine.  After  the  body  has  been  washed  (also  in  bulls' 


BOMBAY,  CASTES,  TOWERS  OF  SILENCE  223 

urine)  by  the  "  corpse  washer  "  the  ancient  rite  of  "  Sag- 
did  "  (glance  of  a  dog)  is  observed  even  in  our  time.  As 
the  eye  of  the  dog  is  believed  to  frighten  away  the  evil 
spirits  that  may  hover  about,  a  dog  is  induced  to  approach 
and  look  at  the  corpse.  Bits  of  bread  are  to  this  end 
scattered  in  the  room,  and  some  placed  on  the  breast  of 
the  body,  and  a  common  hungry  street  dog  being  called 
in,  he  eagerly  eats  it. 

Of  the  Christian  missionary  work  among  the  Gabers,  I 
am  unable  to  give  information.  Even  in  India  the  Par- 
sis  are  more  apt  to  make  proselytes,  as  in  the  case  of  inter- 
marriages with  Hindus,  than  to  adopt  another  religion. 
Instances  of  Parsis  becoming  Moslems  are  very  rare,  and 
are  usually  brought  about  by  force  rather  than  by  convic- 
tion. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THUGS    IN   INDIA 

India  Past  and  Present— Secret  Sects — Mutual  Relations  of  the  Con- 
querors and  Conquered — Hockley,  Hutton  and  Colonel  Meadows- 
Taylor — Two  Opinions  Concerning  Thugs — Condition  of  India  in 
First  Half  of  Nineteenth  Century — Period  of  Disorder  and  Oppres- 
sion— Trials  by  Ordeals — Formation  of  Bands  of  Robbers — Pinda- 
rees — Gussoons — Methods  of  Travelling — Thugs  as  Companions  on 
the  March — Doctrine  of  Thugs — Brahma,  Vishnu  and  Siva — God- 
desses— Bhowanee,  or  Kali — Initiation  of  Thugs,  their  Duties — • 
Thank-Offerings — Divisions  of  Work  among  Bands — Inveiglers, 
Stranglers,  Grave-Diggers — Thug  Methods  of  Working — First  Inti- 
mation of  Thugs  in  1810 — Trial  of  1812 — Expedition  against  Thugs 
— Commission  Formed  in  1830  to  Investigate  Accusations  Brought 
against  Thugs — Conclusion  of  Commission  and  Result  of  its  Work — > 
From  Bombay  to  Jiddah — Perim — Circumstances  Connected  with 
Annexation  of  Perim — Aden. 

INDIA  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  countries  of  the 
world,  and  presents  an  inexhaustible  field  of  exploration 
for  the  historian,  ethnographer,  philologist  and  artist. 
The  peculiar  political  formation  of  this  country  also  has 
its  interest.  Here  we  see  alongside  of  the  English  prov- 
inces, with  their  two  hundred  and  twenty-one  millions  of 
inhabitants,  many  small  "  native  states  "  comprising  alto- 
gether a  population  of  some  seventy-three  millions. 
These  native  states  retain  in  various  degrees  their  inde- 
pendence so  far  as  their  internal  government  goes.  The 
sovereign  power  of  such  states  is,  however,  limited. 
These  limitations  are  generally  formed  by  some  of  the 
following  conditions:  Limitations  as  to  the  size  of  the 

224 


THUGS  IN   INDIA  ,225 

standing  army  they  are  allowed  to  keep;  obligations  as 
to  joining  their  forces  with  those  of  the  English  in  time 
of  need ;  obligations  in  regard  to  ceding  territory  for  rail- 
ways; deprivation  of  the  right  of  carrying  on  independ- 
ent diplomatic  relations  with  foreign  Powers ;  obligations 
of  rulers  to  appear  at  durbars,  or  the  formal  political  re- 
ceptions which  are  held  yearly  with  great  pomp  by  the 
viceroy. 

The  ceremonies  connected  with  these  durbars  are 
strictly  carried  out,  and  the  reception  of  each  ruler  corre- 
sponds to  his  rank,  rajah,  maharajah,  nizam,  etc., 
each  having  his  own  salute  of  a  certain  number  of  guns 
according  to  his  rank.  These  native  rulers  are  obliged 
to  permit  the  appointment  of  a  special  English  repre- 
sentative styled  resident.  The  powers  of  these  residents 
are  greater  or  less  in  different  states,  and  go  so  far  as  giv- 
ing the  right  of  interfering  at  times  in  the  question  of 
succession  to  the  throne. 

The  present  state  exists  in  India  only  since  the  Mutiny 
of  1857,  which  ended  the  existence  of  the  East  India 
Company,  which  had  governed  for  over  two  and  a  half 
centuries.  From  1858,  when  the  control  of  India  came 
under  the  British  crown,  the  English  have  appointed 
viceroys,  under  whom  active  reforms  have  been  made. 
They  set  to  work  to  establish  the  finances  of  the  country 
on  a  firm  basis,  organise  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction, 
limit  the  autocratic  powers  of  the  native  rulers  with  their 
attendant  misrule  and  cruel  practices.  Commercial  and 
strategical  railways  were  built,  and  gradually,  but  stead- 
ily, India  developed  into  its  present  condition. 

The  building  of  a  system  of  railways  made  communi- 
cation easy  and  facilitated  better  acquaintance  with  a 
land  which  hitherto  had  been  shrouded  with  so  much 
that  was  mysterious  and  secret.  But  in  spite  of  the  ease 
with  which  we  can  become  acquainted  with  the  India  of 


226        LIFE   IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

to-day,  with  its  railways,  electric  lights  and  other  attri- 
butes of  civilisation — or  perhaps  on  account  of  it — one  is 
more  drawn  to  study  the  old  India  with  its  fakirs,  its 
secret  religious  sects  and  customs.  Of  these  times  and 
peoples,  one  particular  sect,  that  of  the  Thugs,  has  al- 
ways had  a  peculiar  interest  for  me,  from  what  I  could 
learn  of  them  through  books  that  are  now  seldom  seen. 
In  these  old  records  we  have  the  account  of  persons  who 
at  least  remembered  those  who  had  taken  such  an  active 
part  in  the  suppression  of  this  most  horrible  sect.  I 
should  like  to  share  with  my  readers  some  of  the  infor- 
mation thus  obtained.  In  India,  as  in  all  conquered 
lands,  a  peculiar  historical  fact  is  repeated.  The  con- 
quering race  stands  far  from  the  conquered.  The  one 
and  the  other  fail  to  understand  or  to  know  each  other. 
The  conquerors  come  with  different  views,  feelings  and 
ideals.  They  set  about  carrying  out  practical  schemes 
for  developing  and  raising  the  country,  and  no  doubt  do 
a  very  great  deal  towards  that  end;  but  they  do  little 
towards  penetrating  into  that  complicated  organism  that 
represents  India  with  its  heterogeneous  population,  with 
its  various  religions,  superstitions  and  castes.  The  Eng- 
lish did  not  have  Gil  Bias  in  India,  such  as  was  their 
countryman  Morier  in  Persia,  the  creator  of  the  immor- 
tal "  Hajji  Baba."  In  this  wonderful  book  the  gifted 
writer  portrayed  Persian  life  and  customs  with  a  fidelity 
and  understanding  that  places  his  work  higher  than  any- 
thing that  has  ever  been  written  on  Persia. 

The  official  world  of  the  conqueror  gets  its  information 
from  two  sources — the  upper  sphere  in  its  diplomatic 
relations,  official  receptions,  durbars  in  India  and  "  Des- 
tar-Khanas"  in  Central  Asia;  the  lower  sphere  becomes 
acquainted  as  administrators  and  judges.  In  the  first 
case  the  impression  received  is  generally  optimistic — in 
the  second  pessimistic.  Two  extremes  are  arrived  at, 


THUGS   IN    INDIA  227 

there  is  no  middle,  unless  some  talented  person  appears 
who  gives  himself  to  the  work  of  studying  the  soul  of  the 
people.  The  results  of  this  lack  of  understanding  the 
people  always  culminate  in  events  which  fall  upon  the 
conquerors  with  the  unexpectedness  of  a  thunderclap. 
It  is  enough  to  remember  the  Indian  mutiny,  and  in  later 
years  the  Andijan  massacre  in  our  Central  Asian  prov- 
inces. Such  also  was  the  exposure  of  the  Thugs.  The 
same  parallel  can  be  carried  out  in  regard  to  the  mutual 
relations  of  a  higher  civilisation  and  race  when  brought 
in  contact  with  those  living  on  a  lower  plane  of  culture. 
This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  Armenian  massacres  in 
Turkey  and  the  Boxer  uprising  in  China. 

The  literature  open  to  the  student  of  Indian  life  is  very 
limited.  One  of  the  first  to  fill  this  want  was  an  obscure 
member  of  the  Civil  Service  in  Bombay,  Hockley,  the 
author  of  "  Pandurang  Hari  "  and  "  Tales  of  the  Zenana." 
Then  followed  Hutton,  in  1857,  with  "Thugs  and  Da- 
coits,"  and  Colonel  Meadows-Taylor,  who  wrote  "  A 
Noble  Queen,"  "  Seeta,"  "Tippoo  Sultan,"  "Tara"  and 
the  "Confessions  of  a  Thug"  (1879).  Of  late  years 
many  writers  have  been  added  to  the  list,  among  whom 
none  are  more  widely  known  than  the  talented  author  of 
"  Kim,"  who  has  revealed  a  deep  insight  into  the  heart 
of  the  natives.  As  to  Hockley  and  Meadows-Taylor, 
their  works  are  forgotten  and  are  now  only  to  be  found 
on  the  shelves  of  old  book  dealers.  Of  these  works  the 
"  Confessions  of  a  Thug  "  gives  more  material  than  any 
other  similar  production — except  dry  official  accounts 
— for  acquaintance  with  this  sect,  that,  thanks  to  the  Eng- 
lish, has  ceased  to  exist  in  India. 

The  popular  impression  regarding  Thugs  is  that  it  is 
a  society  or  band  living  by  robbery  and  murder;  that 
they  were  forbidden  to  shed  blood  and  therefore  stran- 
gled their  victims,  cleansing  their  sin  by  offering  sacri- 


228         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

fices.  A  Thug  who  spilled  even  one  drop  of  blood  was 
despised  by  his  kind. 

Others  supposed  them  to  be  simple  highway  robbers, 
whose  object  was  plunder,  and  that  the  particular  form 
of  killing  was  adopted  as  the  most  simple  and  noiseless, 
when  falling  upon  a  sleeping  party  of  travellers. 

To  understand  how  this  sect  of  stranglers  came  to  be 
so  widely  spread,  it  is  necessary  to  glance  at  India  as  it 
was  in  the  first  half  of  the  last  century. 

At  that  period  the  entire  country  was  broken  up  into 
many  small,  independent  principalities  under  despotic 
rulers  who  waged  constant  warfare  with  each  other. 
Anyone  committing  a  crime  in  one  district  could  always 
escape  justice  by  crossing  over  into  the  next  territory. 
Regular  criminal  codes  there  were  none.  Crimes  were 
summarily  punished,  or,  if  the  criminal  had  sufficient 
means  to  pay  well,  he  might  evade  punishment  altogether, 
rajahs,  maharajahs,  etc.,  although  styled  the  "  fountains 
of  justice,"  fell  short  of  being  such  in  fact.  They 
themselves  often  organised  robbing  expeditions,  put  to 
death  or  torture  innocent  persons,  or  for  some  reason  in- 
convenient, and,  on  the  other  hand,  gave  refuge  to  mur- 
derers and  criminals. 

In  the  absence  of  regular  civilised  courts  there  was  a 
system  of  trial  by  ordeal,  or  "  God's  trial."  This  was  to 
be  found  under  many  forms:  the  trial  by  weighing,  by 
fire,  by  water,  poison,  rice,  boiling  oil,  etc.,  etc.  The 
trial  by  weighing  consisted  in  weighing  the  accused,  who 
then  performed  his  ablutions  and  prayers,  and  the  act  of 
condemnation  being  fastened  to  his  forehead,  he  was  again 
weighed.  If  the  weight  then  proved  greater  than  at 
first,  he  was  considered  guilty  and  punished  accordingly. 
If  the  weight  was  less,  the  man  was  innocent.  In  case 
each  time  the  weight  was  the  same,  they  kept  on  weigh- 
ing until  a  difference  was  found! 


THUGS   IN   INDIA  229 

The  trial  by  fire  was  performed  by  having  the  accused 
run  barefooted  over  a  bed  of  hot  coals ;  if  the  feet  were 
not  burned,  the  accused  was  set  free.  The  ordeal  by 
water  consisted  in  giving  water  to  the  accused  in  which 
an  idol  had  been  washed.  If  during  fourteen  days  an 
illness  was  not  the  result,  he  was  declared  innocent.  The 
poison  trial  was  in  two  forms;  the  first  being  by  the  prep- 
aration in  fat  of  seven  small  pills  in  one  of  which  was 
some  kind  of  poison,  generally  arsenic.  The  accused  had 
to  choose  and  swallow  one,  and  if  he  did  not  die,  he  was 
supposed  to  be  innocent.  The  second  form  was  in  plac- 
ing a  ring  and  a  live  cobra  in  a  narrow-necked  jug.  The 
accused  was  made  to  pass  his  hand  in  and  get  the  ring;  if 
he  did  so  without  being  bitten  by  the  snake,  he  was  de- 
clared innocent.  The  ordeals  by  hot  iron  and  boiling 
oil  were  on  the  same  principle,  as  well  as  many  other 
such  forms  of  trial. 

The  various  rulers  and  princes  lived  with  great  pomp 
and  splendour,  spending  vast  sums  on  the  maintenance  of 
their  palaces,  harems,  dancing  girls  and  elephants.  The 
last  named  were  fed  at  the  expense  of  the  people  and  were 
a  great  burden  to  them.  It  was  in  vain  that  grocers' 
shops  were  quickly  closed  at  the  approach  of  one  of  the 
rajah's  elephants.  The  mahout  would  drive  the  ele- 
phant up  to  the  door  and  give  the  command  "  Tor  dallo," 
"  Break  to  splinters,"  and  the  mighty  beast  would  soon 
have  the  shutters  down,  and  the  owner,  found  hidden  be- 
hind his  bags  of  rice,  would  gladly  come  forward  and 
give  what  the  elephant  needed  if  only  to  escape  further 
destruction. 

Under  such  conditions  of  misrule  and  the  frequent 
famine  years,  it  was  natural  that  many  of  the  people, 
pushed  to  extremes,  joined  bands  of  professional  robbers. 
The  constant  state  of  war  between  the  various  states  and 
the  absence  of  regular  troops,  gave  occupation  to  an  en- 


230         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

tire  class  of  different  nationalities  known  under  the  name 
of  "  Pindarees,"  men  who,  being  well  armed  and  mounted, 
sought  their  fortunes  by  means  of  their  swords  and  who 
entered  the  paid  army  of  one  or  another  of  the  rajahs. 
On  their  tough  little  ponies  these  bands  could  cover  al- 
most incredible  distances  in  the  twenty-four  hours,  keep- 
ing up  their  horses'  strength  in  extreme  cases  by  large 
doses  of  opium.  These  Pindarees,  in  the  shape  of  hired 
cavalry,  were  noted  for  their  unrivalled  cruelty.  They 
would  ruthlessly  plunder,  murder  and  torture  the  peace- 
ful citizens  of  the  countries  against  which  they  were 
fighting.  In  times  of  peace,  from  lack  of  occupation, 
these  Pindarees  formed  bands  of  highway  robbers. 

Aside  from  these  were  also  bands  of  Gussoons,  or  Gus- 
seins,  who  lived  exclusively  by  plunder. 

About  1816  the  number  and  strength  of  the  Pindaree 
bands  became  so  great  that  their  raids  extended  to  Mad- 
ras and  Bombay.  One  of  the  most  famous  chiefs  of  these 
bands  was  one  Ameer  Khan,  who  had  under  his  com- 
mand as  many  as  20,000  horse  and  foot. 

As  the  Pindarees  were  nearly  always  on  good  terms 
with  the  native  rulers,  the  English  were  obliged  to  fit 
out  an  army  of  120,000  men  to  subjugate  them.  Ameer 
Khan  disbanded  his  men  and  settled  down  to  a  respect- 
able life,  for  which  he  received  a  small  principality. 

During  the  sway  of  the  Pindarees  the  agricultural 
class  suffered  as  well  as  the  merchants  and  travellers. 
They  were  obliged,  while  working  in  the  fields,  to  keep 
a  watch  set  and  to  drive  their  cattle  at  night  into  a  pro- 
tected place  in  the  middle  of  the  villages.  Sometimes 
they  were  forced  to  buy  their  safety  by  the  payment  of 
yearly  sums  to  bands  of  Pindarees  who  undertook  to  pro- 
tect them  from  others  of  the  same  class. 

Travelling  was  very  dangerous,  as  there  were  few 
highways  and  the  East  India  Company  was  only  just  be- 


THUGS   IN   INDIA  231 

ginning  to  build  some  strategic  cart  roads.  The  rest  of 
the  country  had  nothing  but  foot-paths  over  which  loaded 
animals  could  pass.  These  roads  led  over  steep  mountain 
passes,  through  thick  jungles  or  along  river  beds  with 
overhanging  precipitous  sides;  in  a  word,  they  formed 
ideal  hiding  places  for  robbers  and  refugees  from  pur- 
suit. Travellers,  therefore,  joined  in  bands,  for  mutual 
safety,  riding  on  horses,  mules  and  donkeys.  These  ani- 
mals were  usually  hired  and  the  owner  accompanied  them 
on  foot.  From  twenty  to  thirty  miles  were  made  in  the 
twenty-four  hours,  the  caravan  for  economy's  sake  avoid- 
ing camping  in  large  towns,  choosing  in  preference  vil- 
lages or  some  spot  off  the  road.  These  circumstances 
were  seized  upon  by  the  Thugs,  who  joined  such  caravans 
as  porters,  won  the  confidence  of  its  members  and,  when 
opportunity  offered,  strangled  and  robbed  them,  after- 
wards dividing  the  spoils.  The  disappearance  in  this 
way  of  even  entire  caravans  was  not  soon  known  owing  to 
the  slow  means  of  communication  and  absence  of  posts. 
The  fact  of  the  caravans  avoiding  towns  made  it  difficult 
to  trace  them,  and  the  relatives  of  the  missing  ones  sub- 
mitted to  their  loss,  attributing  it  to  the  troubled  times, 
Pindarees,  etc.  The  fact  of  the  country  being  divided 
among  so  many  rulers,  the  existence  of  various  tongues, 
nationalities  and  castes,  all  facilitated  the  task  of  the 
Thugs  and  made  it  possible  for  them  to  carry  on  their 
organisation  unpunished  and  unknown  and  to  increase 
their  horrid  profession.  The  plunder  that  they  obtained 
was  very  great.  Owing  to  the  absence  of  banks  and  posts 
money  and  valuables  had  to  be  carried  with  one  or  sent 
by  trusty  messengers,  who  often,  in  the  disguise  of  a  poor 
man,  joined  the  caravan.  The  assembling  of  such  a 
party  seldom  escaped,  however,  the  sharp  eyes  of  the 
Thugs  in  spite  of  the  disguises. 
The  name  Thug  is  derived  from  the  verb  "  tukhna," 


232        LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

"to  deceive."  This  was  the  name  the  natives  gave  to 
the  sect  that  owed  its  existence  to  deception  in  various 
forms.  The  Thugs,  however,  called  themselves  "  Buhot- 
tees,"  or  "  stranglers." 

The  origin  of  this  sect  was  by  a  perversion  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  trinity,  "  Trimurti." 

This  trinity  proceeded  from  the  one  great  Brahma, 
that  is  one  and  yet  three;  Brahma  the  creator,  Vishnu  the 
preserver  and  Siva  the  destroyer.  Brahma  is  therefore 
generally  represented  as  having  three  heads,  one  in  the 
middle  and  one  on  each  side,  facing  the  right  and  left. 
Although  the  doctrine  of  one  great  God  as  represented 
by  Brahma  is  accepted,  it  does  not  interfere  with  the 
popular  adoration  of  one  individual  member  of  this 
triune  God;  this  is  especially  observed  by  the  humbler 
castes. 

Siva  is  by  them  worshipped  as  the  most  dreaded  of  the 
three,  and  a  God  whose  anger  is  to  be  appeased  by  con- 
tinual sacrifices  and  offerings.  But  these  gods  paved  the 
way  for  a  series  of  goddesses,  as  Sarasvati,  the  goddess 
of  eloquence  and  of  learning;  the  wife  of  Vishnu,  Laksh- 
mi,  the  goddess  of  beauty  and  of  happiness,  and  of  Siva, 
Kalee  or  Bhowanee,  the  goddess  of  blood,  death  and  de- 
struction. It  is  this  goddess  whom  the  Thugs  worshipped 
and  regarded  as  their  protector. 

The  conception  of  Kali,  as  expressed  in  the  worship 
was  extremely  repulsive;  she  was  the  goddess  of  cholera, 
plague  and  other  epidemics,  and  to  appease  her  wrath 
sacrifices  were  offered  of  animals  in  modern  times,  but 
formerly  even  human  sacrifices  were  deemed  necessary. 
These  human  sacrifices,  which  were  pleasing  to  Kali, 
did  not  conflict  with  the  will  of  Brahma  the  Creator,  as 
'death  itself  was  the  precursor  of  a  new  life. 

The  Thugs  themselves  give  the  following  explanation 
of  their  origin: 


THUGS   IN    INDIA  233 

The  principles  of  creation  and  destruction  worked  in 
harmony,  though  having  contradictory  aims.  The  pow- 
ers of  creation,  however,  became  greater  than  those  of 
destruction  and  the  earth  soon  became  too  populous.  In 
order  to  establish  an  equilibrium  in  the  growth  and  de- 
crease of  the  population,  Kali  permitted  her  followers 
to  use  all  means  possible  to  this  end.  Departing  from  her 
role  as  destroyer,  she,  for  the  first  and  only  time,  created 
a  being  to  which  she  gave  life.  Then,  gathering  together 
her  followers,  she  explained  to  them  a  certain  manner  of 
causing  death,  illustrating  her  design  by  strangling  in 
their  presence  the  being  that  she  had  created.  As  a  re- 
ward for  thus  helping  to  check  the  undesirable  increase 
of  the  population  of  the  world,  she  allowed  her  followers 
to  enjoy  the  property  of  their  victims.  To  show  her  ap- 
proval, she  gave  special  facility  and  skill  to  her  disciples 
and  took  upon  herself  the  task  of  making  the  bodies  of  the 
victims  vanish.  This  convenient  state  of  things  existed 
until  some  inquisitive  Thugs,  moved  by  an  overpowering 
desire  to  know  what  became  of  the  bodies,  decided  to  try 
to  discover  where  they  disappeared.  The  all-seeing 
goddess,  reading  their  designs,  in  token  of  her  displeas- 
ure announced  that  in  future  they  would  have  to  look 
out  for  themelves  in  the  hiding  of  all  bodies.  She,  how- 
ever, continued  to  protect  them  and  promised  that  all 
murders  committed  in  her  name  should  remain  undis- 
covered. Certain  rites  had  to  be  performed  in  connec- 
tion with  each  killing,  and  when  anything  went  wrong 
or  they  were  discovered,  the  cause  was  traced  to  some 
carelessness  in  observing  omens,  or  the  overlooking  of 
some  rite,  thereby  drawing  upon  themselves  the  anger  of 
"their  goddess,  who  had,  in  consequence,  withheld  her 
blessing  and  aid. 

Owing  to  their  secret  organisation  and  the  deftness 
svith  which  their  work  was  carried  out,  the  Thugs  were 


234         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

very  seldom  caught  in  the  old  lawless  days.  When  such 
a  thing  happened,  however,  death  was  the  sentence,  and 
the  execution  of  a  Thug  was  usually  performed  in  a  cer- 
tain manner.  The  man  was  bound  to  the  feet  of  an  ele- 
phant, who  was  driven  through  the  principal  streets  of 
the  town,  trampling  the  bound  Thug  under  his  huge  feet 
at  every  step. 

The  Thugs  were,  of  necessity,  very  careful  whom  they 
admitted  to  their  sect.  Fathers  generally  had  their  sons 
follow  the  same  calling,  initiating  them  only  when  grown 
up,  and  if  the  boy  showed  himself  to  be  a  promising  can- 
didate. Otherwise  the  families  of  Thugs  seldom,  if 
ever,  shared  the  secret  or  suspected  the  real  profession  of 
their  fathers  or  husbands.  It  was  much  easier  in  those 
days  to  keep  the  secret  than  it  would  seem  at  first  glance. 
The  Thugs  belonged  to  members  of  various  social  classes, 
professions  and  castes  and  even  religions,  but  both  Mo- 
hammedans and  Hindus  joined  in  the  common  worship 
of  Kali.  In  the  cool  season,  when  people  travel  with 
greater  ease,  they,  too,  under  one  pretext  or  another, 
would  go  off  and  be  absent  for  two  or  three  months  on 
"  business  "  or  for  pleasure,  as  seemed  the  easiest  explana- 
tion, and  then  return  as  any  other  honest  citizen  would  do. 

In  spite  of  the  horrible  profession  they  carried  on,  the 
Thugs  were  remarkably  tender  in  their  family  ties.  The 
British  Government  was  aware  of  this  and  profited  by  it 
in  the  campaign  they  eventually  carried  on  against  this 
sect.  When  a  recognised  Thug  escaped,  they  simply 
kept  watch  on  his  house,  sure  that  sooner  or  later  the 
Thug  would  be  drawn  to  his  home  in  spite  of  the  danger 
awaiting  him.  When  under  sentence  of  death,  which 
they  met  calmly,  their  one  desire  was  to  take  leave  of 
those  near  and  dear  to  them,  and  very  touching  scenes  are 
reported  as  taking  place  between  these  men  of  blood  and 
their  families. 


THUGS   IN   INDIA  235 

The  ceremony  of  initiation  into  the  community  of 
Thugs  was  as  follows:  The  candidate  was  first  carefully 
instructed  as  to  the  duties  and  beliefs  of  the  sect  and 
sworn  to  the  most  profound  secrecy.  After  performing 
certain  ablutions  and  dressing  in  clean  garments  he  was 
led  to  a  secret  place  where  a  party  of  Thugs,  with  a  reli- 
gious leader,  or  Guroo,  awaited  him.  On  a  white  cloth 
was  laid  a  spade,  the  symbol  of  the  Thugs.  Here  the 
candidate  was  questioned  as  to  his  voluntary  entrance  into 
their  band,  and  on  receiving  an  affirmative  reply,  all  rose, 
and  the  Guroo,  lifting  his  hands,  made  the  following 
prayer:  "Oh,  Bhowanee,  mother  of  the  world!  We, 
thy  faithful  followers,  pray  thee  to  receive  this  thy  serv- 
ant and  give  to  him  a  sign  of  thy  blessing  and  to  us  a  sign 
to  confirm  it."  Then  followed  certain  rites  in  which 
they  hoped  to  find  an  omen  to  prove  to  them  that  the  ini- 
tiation had  met  with  the  approval  of  their  goddess. 
These  omens  were  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  life 
of  the  Thugs.  They  were  mostly  sought  in  the  signs  of 
the  jungle  about  them,  and  throughout  the  right  side  was 
considered  lucky  and  the  left  unlucky,  as,  for  instance, 
the  cry  of  one  and  the  same  bird  or  beast,  or  first  glimpse 
of  the  moon,  could  be  interpreted  as  being  propitious  or 
otherwise  to  the  undertaking  according  as  heard  or  seen 
on  the  right  or  left  side.  After  the  approving  omen  had 
been  obtained,  the  sacred  spade  was  brought  to  the  candi- 
date, who,  taking  it  in  his  hand,  raised  it  towards  the  sky 
and  pronounced  his  solemn  oath.  The  oath  included  ab- 
solute secrecy  and  devotion  to  the  band,  and  the  promise 
to  seek  the  life  of  every  lawful  being  to  bring  as  a  sacri- 
fice to  his  deity.  A  bit  of  sugar  called  gur  was  then 
given  to  him  and  he  was  pronounced  to  be  a  Thug.  He 
was  then  handed  over  to  one  of  the  most  skilful  stran- 
glers  for  lessons  in  the  art  of  strangling,  and  before  his 
first  killing  a  special  ceremony  was  again  performed,  dur- 


1236         LIFE  IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

ing  which  he  first  underwent  a  five  days'  fast,  then,  after 
an  approving  omen  had  been  obtained,  he  was  given  the 
fateful  handkerchief  and  spade,  and  after  his  first  suc- 
cessful case  he  was  called  a  Buhottee  or  strangler. 

Naturally  secrecy  was  the  fundamental  condition  of 
membership.  The  betrayal  of  the  oath  was  followed 
not  only  by  the  death  of  the  unfaithful  Thug,  but  all 
those  to  whom  information  had  been  imparted  were,  if 
possible,  also  strangled. 

But  the  Thugs  had  not  permission  to  kill  all  classes  of 
people.  The  exceptions  were  washermen  (the  laundry 
work  in  India  is  done  exclusively  by  men),  sweepers,  car- 
penters, fakirs,  sellers  of  vegetables,  dancers,  lepers  and 
finally  Sikhs.  The  latter  are  the  fighting  clan  of  India 
par  excellence,  and  as  such  were  considered  as  in  a  way 
pursuing  the  same  aims  as  those  of  the  Thugs.  They  are 
the  dominating  people  in  the  Punjab  and  most  faithful  to 
the  British  Government.  There  are  at  present  a  number 
of  battalions  formed  entirely  of  Sikhs,  and  other  mixed 
battalions  in  the  composition  of  which  they  form  a  large 
majority. 

Women  were  never  killed  if  it  was  possible  to  avoid  it, 
the  deity  of  the  sect  being  herself  a  woman.  The  excep- 
tions were  when  women  were  witnesses  to  the  killing  of 
the  men  of  their  party,  or  if  a  wife  or  sister  of  a  Thug 
had  suspicions  as  to  his  profession. 

With  what  coldbloodedness  these  murders  were  per- 
formed was  strongly  brought  out  by  the  testimony  of  the 
Thugs  who  were  brought  for  trial  by  the  English.  I 
shall  quote  the  account  as  given  by  one  of  these  prisoners. 
"On  our  way  to  Dorego  we  met  three  Brahmins  together 
with  a  fakir  who  was  mounted  on  a  miserable  horse. 
The  latter  was  all  smeared  with  sugar  to  attract  the  flies, 
that  were  swarming  all  over  him.  We  drove  off  the  fakir 
and  killed  the  Brahmins.  Coming  out  of  Dorego  we 


THUGS   IN    INDIA  237 

again  met  the  fakir,  who  joined  our  party.  On  the  way 
we  met  seven  travellers  who  were  going  from  Bombay 
to  Nagpur.  We  drove  the  fakir  off  with  stones  and 
killed  the  seven.  The  next  morning  we  again  met  the 
fakir  and  again  let  him  go.  Later  we  met  two  Kachins 
and  a  Sepoy,  and  on  inveigling  them  to  the  place  where 
we  had  intended  killing  them,  we  again  found  our  fakir! 
Losing  our  patience  at  last,  we  paid  one  of  our  number 
five  rupees  to  kill  him,  taking  the  sin  upon  ourselves. 
We  strangled  the  three  and  with  them  the  fakir,  upon 
whom  we  found  30  pounds  of  coral  and  350  strings  of 
small  and  15  of  large  pearls,  also  a  gold  necklace." 

After  each  successful  enterprise  a  service  of  thanks- 
giving to  Bhowanee  was  held.  All  sat  on  the  ground 
with  their  faces  towards  the  west.  The  presiding  Guroo 
dug  a  small  hole  and  near  it  spread  a  handkerchief,  on 
which  were  placed  the  sacred  spade,  sugar  and  a  silver 
coin.  The  Guroo  then  pronounced  the  following  prayer: 
"Almighty  Ruler,  thou  who  dost  protect  thy  followers 
and  givest  them  one  lak  and  60,000  rupees,  we  pray  thee 
to  continue  thy  protection  and  to  fulfil  our  desires." 

The  spade  was  then  sprinkled  with  water  and  the  hole 
also  filled  with  the  same  fluid.  In  deep  silence  all  pres- 
ent then  ate  the  sugar  and  drunk  the  water  from  the  hole. 

The  duties  of  the  various  members  of  the  band  were 
strictly  defined.  The  captain  bore  the  title  djemadar — 
colonel.  Then  came  the  Suttaes,  or  decoyers.  Those 
were  chosen  from  among  the  most  eloquent  and  plausible 
of  the  band,  and  their  duty  was  to  go  about  seeking  for 
desirable  victims  and  then  to  decoy  them  into  the  com- 
pany of  the  Thugs,  generally  under  the  pretext  of  travel- 
ling together  for  greater  safety.  Great  skill  and  tact  was 
needed  to  persuade  them,  without  exciting  suspicion,  into 
joining  the  company.  Another  division  was  that  of  grave- 
diggers,  who  prepared  the  common  grave  in  which  all 


238         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

the  victims  were  buried;  and  the  third  were  the  stran- 
glers.  This  operation  was  performed  in  the  way  first 
taught  the  Thugs  by  Bhowanee  or  Kali  herself.  A 
large  strong  handkerchief  was  taken  and  into  one  corner 
of  it  a  coin,  generally  a  rupee,  was  tied.  The  corner  with 
the  money  was  taken  in  the  left  hand  and  the  right  hand 
grasped  the  handkerchief  at  a  distance  from  the  left  hand 
corresponding  to  the  approximate  size  of  the  neck.  The 
handkerchief  was  thrown  from  behind  and  drawn  to- 
gether in  such  a  way  that  the  rupee  came  at  the  back  of 
the  neck  just  over  the  spinal  cord.  One  twist  of  the  skil- 
ful hands  and  death  was  instantaneous,  the  victim  never 
having  time  to  utter  a  cry. 

The  order  of  proceedings  was  generally  as  follows: 
The  decoyers  having  done  their  work,  and  the  victims 
being  already  in  the  caravan  of  the  Thugs,  the  grave-dig- 
gers went  ahead  to  find  a  suitable  spot  for  safely  conceal- 
ing the  bodies.  When  the  chosen  place  was  reached,  at 
a  given  signal  from  the  djemadar,  each  Buhottee,  who 
had  already  contrived  to  be  near  the  victim  allotted  to 
him,  threw  his  handkerchief  and  the  terrible  deed  was 
done.  The  grave-diggers  then  quickly  took  up  the  bodies 
and  carried  them  to  the  already  prepared  grave.  These 
were  generally  in  the  depths  of  a  jungle  or  in  an  impassa- 
ble ravine,  or  sometimes  in  the  spot  where  the  camp  was 
to  be,  the  tents  were  pitched  over  the  newly-smoothed 
graves  and  the  Thugs  calmly  slept  over  the  victims  who 
had  been  their  confiding  fellow  travellers.  A  deep  gash 
was  made  in  the  abdomen  of  each  body  to  prevent  the 
swelling  that  might  disturb  the  form  of  the  grave,  and 
strong  stakes  were  driven  through  them,  pinning  them  to 
the  earth.  This  was  done  so  that  in  case,  after  all 
other  precautions,  wild  beasts  should  open  the  graves, 
they  would  not  be  able  to  drag  the  bodies  out  into  view. 
The  grave  was  then  carefully  filled  and  made  to  look  as 


THUGS   IN    INDIA  239 

natural  as  possible  and  all  tracks  leading  to  it  concealed. 
Or  if  such  a  place  was  not  to  be  found,  the  camp  was 
made  to  stand  over  the  graves,  and  the  traces  of  a  camp 
were  all  that  were  left  to  mark  the  spot.  If,  during  the 
work,  anyone  happened  to  pass  by,  his  fate  was  the  same, 
no  mercy  being  then  shown  to  the  unhappy  witness  of 
the  deed,  be  it  woman,  child  or  member  of  the  castes 
whose  death  was  prohibited. 

In  later  years,  when  the  English  were  actively  pursu- 
ing Thugs,  graves  were  discovered  in  which  forty  or 
more  bodies  were  found,  forming  a  sight  so  terrible  that 
the  strongest  nerves  were  shaken. 

It  would  take  pages  to  tell  of  all  the  ingenious  devices 
and  disguises  adopted  by  the  Thugs  in  carrying  out  their 
designs.  They  passed  themselves  off  sometimes  as  mer- 
chants, or  as  travellers  returning  to  their  home ;  as  soldiers 
in  the  employ  of  one  or  another  rajah.  Sometimes  they 
killed  according  to  well-laid  plans,  making  their  victims 
rise  at  an  earlier  hour  than  usual  in  order  to  reach  the 
spot  chosen  at  a  convenient  time.  To  do  this  they  prof- 
ited by  the  customs  of  the  people  with  whom  they  trav- 
elled. In  the  absence  of  watches,  caravans  often  made 
their  move  in  the  morning  when  the  birds  first  began  to 
twitter.  The  Thugs,  therefore,  would  either  imitate 
these  sounds,  or,  creeping  up  a  tree,  would  shake  the 
branches  and  excite  the  birds  to  chirp  and  twitter  before 
the  hour,  thus  making  these  innocent  birds,  who  are  cre- 
ated to  charm  and  please,  the  unconscious  messengers  of 
death  to  the  sleeping  travellers.  At  other  times  they 
took  advantage  of  the  confusion  caused  by  climbing  a 
steep  narrow  ravine,  or  in  fording  a  stream :  or  again  un- 
expectedly, if  a  favourable  moment  presented  itself,  the 
dejemadar  would  give  his  sinister  signal. 

The  Thugs  had  a  secret  jargon  of  their  own  by  which 
they  could  recognise  members  of  their  own  sect,  give  in- 


240         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

structions  or  warnings,  while  seemingly  carrying  on  an 
ordinary  conversation. 

For  many  long  years  the  Thugs  carried  on  their  in- 
fernal trade,  unpunished  with  very  few  exceptions,  and 
undiscovered. 

In  1810,  however,  the  attention  of  the  English  was 
called  to  the  mysterious  disappearance  of  a  number  of 
native  soldiers.  The  investigations  made,  though  with- 
out leading  to  any  practical  results,  awakened  a  strong 
suspicion  that  the  men  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of 
Thugs. 

Secret  instructions  were  given  throughout  the  army 
and  police  force  for  vigilance  in  this  direction.  In  1812 
the  disappearance  of  an  officer  brought  about  a  more 
active  campaign,  which  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  the 
workings  of  several  bands  of  Thugs.  It  was  found  that 
this  sect  had  for  many  years  paid  a  tribute  to  the  rulers 
of  Sind  to  obtain  their  protection,  or,  at  least,  non-inter- 
ference. It  was  also  discovered  that  the  men  of  whole 
villages  were  in  some  instances  of  this  cult.  Expeditions 
were  formed,  and  the  Thugs  became  scattered  all  over 
India.  After  this  disbanding,  the  British  .Government 
took  no  further  steps  between  1816  and  1830.  In  the 
latter  year,  however,  organised  bands  were  again  found 
to  be  working  in  the  districts  of  Malwee  and  Bundelkund, 
and  then  the  English  decided  to  crush  them  once  for  all. 

A  special  department  in  the  administration  was 
formed  to  study  the  secret  organisations  of  the  Thugs. 
At  the  head  of  this  department  was  an  energetic  English 
officer  with  seven  aides.  His  report  was  published  in 
Calcutta  in  1840,  showing  that  he  had  succeeded  in  ar- 
resting one  of  the  chief  leaders  of  the  Thugs,  a  Hindu, 
Ferengi  by  name,  who  betrayed  all  his  companions  and 
even  showed  the  graves  of  their  victims.  Two  hundred 
and  seventy-four  burying  places  were  found,  in  one  enor- 


THUGS   IN    INDIA  241 

mous  grave  100  bodies  being  counted.  These  274  bury- 
ing places  were  along  a  roadside  for  a  distance  of  1,400 
miles,  and  were  to  be  found  on  an  average  five  miles  from 
each  other. 

After  such  information  many  Thugs  were  caught  and 
all  were  sentenced  to  be  hanged.  Commutation  of  the 
death  sentence  to  that  of  imprisonment  for  life  was  made 
in  cases  where  a  Thug  gave  evidence  that  would  lead 
to  the  arrest  of  other  bands. 

Little  by  little,  before  the  horrified  eyes  of  the  Eng- 
lish, the  terrible  picture  was  unfolded,  betraying  in  all 
its  details  the  naked  facts  connected  with  the  crimes  that 
had  been  committed  unknown  in  their  very  midst  As 
the  trials  went  on,  fresh  arrests  were  constantly  made  and 
new  graves  opened  to  prove  the  truth  of  the  testimony 
given.  From  all  parts  of  India  word  came  of  existing 
bands,  and  in  the  end  it  was  found  that  there  was  not  a 
province  in  the  land  that  had  escaped  this  scourge. 
Among  those  bands  were  found  people  of  every  profes- 
sion and  social  condition.  The  governor  general  of 
India,  Lord  William  Bentinck,  and  his  council  then 
took  the  matter  up.  Native  rulers  were  made  to  deliver 
over  all  Thugs  known  to  them  and  to  undertake  to  cease 
protecting  them  in  future.  Along  all  the  principal  high- 
ways guards  were  placed  at  intervals  as  deemed  neces- 
sary. Owing  to  these  measures,  we  find  in  the  report  of 
Colonel  Meadows-Taylor  that  between  the  year  1831  and 
1837,  inclusively,  3,266  Thugs  were  arrested,  and  almost 
all  met  the  fate  they  so  well  deserved.  Aside  from  the 
above  number  there  were  1,800  Thugs  known  by  name, 
but  whom  the  government  was  unable  to  catch. 

What  colossal  figures  represent  the  numbers  who  per- 
ished at  the  hands  of  these  bands  is  shown  by  the  confes- 
sions of  one  of  the  Thugs,  a  Mohammedan,  Fetti  Khan, 
who  in  twenty  years  himself  strangled  508  persons.  An- 


242         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

other  Thug  during  his  forty  years'  career  as  a  Thug 
killed  931.  In  one  " season"  a  band  of  six  Thugs  stran- 
gled 210  victims! 

It  further  came  to  light  that  the  Thugs  operated  all 
along  the  Ganges,  where  they  acted  as  boatmen  for  ferry- 
ing pilgrims  across  to  sacred  spots. 

In  conclusion  the  question  presents  itself  as  to  which 
of  the  theories  mentioned  at  the  beginning  of  the  chapter 
as  to  the  origin  of  the  Thugs  is  the  most  correct.  Were 
they  a  religious  sect,  strictly  working  according  to  a  reli- 
gious belief;  or  were  they  a  band  of  highwaymen  carry- 
ing on  their  nefarious  trade  under  the  banner  of  a  reli- 
gious sect?  My  own  opinion  is  that  the  sect  was  origi- 
nally started  on  a  strictly  religious  basis,  but  that  gradu- 
ally the  immense  material  gain  drew  followers  who  were 
attracted  by  the  loot  to  be  gained,  and  that  finally  the  ma- 
jority of  Thugs  were  little  influenced  by  religious  impulse. 
As  a  proof  of  this  theory  is  the  fact  that  among  the 
Thugs  in  later  years  many  Moslems  were  to  be  found  to 
whom  taking  of  life  is  strictly  forbidden.  Another  view 
brought  out  was  that  it  was  a  kind  of  sport.  One  of  the 
Thugs  under  examination  cynically  remarked,  "  You 
English  are  devoted  to  a  sport,  you  risk  your  lives  in 
hunting  tigers,  panthers  and  buffaloes,  and  yet  our  pro- 
fession is  higher  than  yours;  we  hunt  a  nobler  game, 
man!" 

The  measures  taken  by  the  English  in  improving 
means  of  communication,  ensuring  order  and  safety,  and 
the  changes  wrought  in  the  elevation  of  the  morals  and 
views  of  the  people,  all  helped  to  bring  about  the  desired 
result.  In  the  sixties  the  Thugs  were  suppressed,  and 
now  the  tales  of  their  dark  deeds  remain  only  as  things  of 
the  past. 

Unfortunately  our  stay  in  India  was  short  and  came 
to  an  end  just  as  we  felt  we  were  beginning  to  appreciate 


THUGS   IN    INDIA  243 

the  nameless  charm  of  that  unrivalled  land.  "  Shall  we 
ever  revisit  this  interesting  country?  "  was  the  thought 
that  came  to  us  as  we  went  on  board  the  steamer  bound 
for  Egypt,  that  would  stop  at  only  two  places  of  interest 
to  the  Moslem  world,  Jiddah,  the  port  for  the  pilgrim  to 
Mecca,  and  Yambu,  for  those  bound  to  Medina. 

We  found  ourselves  again  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  the 
familiar  ship  life  began,  with  its  usual  recreations,  dis- 
cussions as  to  the  state  of  the  barometer  and  the  day's 
run,  and  the  interest  aroused  by  every  ship  met.  And  as 
the  long,  uneventful  days  went  by  we  welcomed  the  excite- 
ment of  passing  Perim,  a  small  island  of  some  fourteen 
square  miles,  in  the  straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  which, 
though  small,  possess  considerable  strategic  interest. 
Coming  abreast  of  the  island  the  steamer  dipped  her  flag, 
as  all  English  ships  do,  and  among  the  passengers  was  to 
be  heard  the  singing  of  some  couplets  commemorating  an 
English  political  officer  who  for  years  sent  his  reports 
and  was  supposed  to  live  on  this  dreary  spot  while  in  fact 
enjoying  the  delights  of  England,  from  which  place  his 
reports  were  sent  to  be  remailed  from  Perim. 

At  least  so  the  ditty,  that  in  duty  bound  was  at  that 
time  always  chanted  on  the  decks  of  passing  steamers, 
affirmed.  Here,  too,  we  heard  the  details  of  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  island  by  the  British.  As  far  back  as  1799 
the  British  had  kept  an  eye  on  the  strategical  advantages 
of  this  little  bit  of  land,  but  they  did  not  formally  possess 
themselves  of  it  then. 

More  than  half  a  century  passed  when  the  French 
Government,  looking  about  for  a  coaling  station,  had  its 
attention  drawn  to  this  convenient  island.  With  secret 
orders  a  man-of-war  was  sent  in  1857  to  occupy  Perim 
and  raise  the  French  flag.  But  the  English  were  not 
easily  taken  in.  When  trie  French  ships  entered  Aden 
the  English  governor  gave  a  dinner  in  honour  of  the 


244         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM    EAST 

French  officers.  Owing  to  the  indiscretion  of  a  young 
French  ensign  in  talking  with  an  English  lady,  the  secret 
leaked  out,  with  the  result  that  when,  on  the  next  day, 
the  French  arrived  at  Perim,  they  found  to  their  chagrin 
the  English  jack  already  flying  there. 

We  anchored  off  Aden,  the  southern  key  to  the  Red  Sea, 
lying  1,650  miles  from  [Bombay  and  1,300  from  Suez. 
The  city  is  on  an  oval-shaped  peninsula  that  is  connected 
with  the  main  land  by  a  narrow  neck.  The  city  lies  just 
opposite  to  the  fortified  island  of  Sirah  and  is,  together 
with  the  island  of  Perim,  under  the  government  of 
(Bombay.  Aden  was  known  to  the  ancients,  but  its  im- 
portance varied  with  the  successive  periods.  As  the  port 
for  the  commerce  of  all  the  Arabian  peninsula  the  Ro- 
mans occupying  Egypt  regarded  it  as  a  rival  to  their  mo- 
nopoly of  the  Indian  tra'de,  and  therefore  demolished  it. 
But,  owing  to  its  geographical  position,  Aden  again  rose 
in  the  eleventh  century,  and  in  the  sixteenth  century  we 
find  it  the  chief  connecting  link  between  Eastern  and 
[Western  trade.  In  1513  Albuquerque  made  an  ineffect- 
ual attempt  to  take  Aden,  but  in  1537  it  fell  into  the 
Hands  of  Sultan  Solyman  II. 

With  the  opening  of  the  Cape  route  as  a  channel  for 
commercial  communication  the  importance  of  Aden  rap- 
idly fell,  and  in  the  nineteenth  century  it  could  not  claim 
more  than  800  inhabitants.  Chance  led  to  the  English 
occupying  this  important  point  In  1863  the  crew  of  a 
ship  wrecked  near  Aden  were  robbed  by  the  Coast  Arabs. 
The  English  "demanded  compensation,  but  as  their  nego- 
tiations led  to  no  result,  they  occupied  Aden  by  force  on 
the  1 9th  January,  1869.  From  this  time  Aden  became 
not  only  a  point  of  strategical  value,  but,  with  the  open- 
ing of  the  Suez  Canal,  its  old  commercial  importance  re- 
vived, and  the  addition  of  Perim  gave  the  English  the 
key  to  the  Red  Sea. 


THUGS   IN   INDIA 

At  the  present  time  the  population  of  Aden  is  about 
40,000,  made  up  of  many  nationalities.  Its  imports 
amount  to  as  much  as  three  million  pounds  sterling 
yearly,  and  its  exports,  coffee,  gum,  ivory,  pearls  and 
ostrich  feathers,  to  two  and  a  half  million  pounds. 

Although  it  was  October,  the  heat  was  considerable. 
The  city,  notwithstanding  the  many  improvements  intro- 
duced by  the  English,  is  dreary  and  unattractive.  We, 
however,  wasted  little  time  there,  for  as  soon  as  we  had 
taken  in  the  coal  we  needed,  and  swallowed  at  the  same 
time  the  usual  amount  of  dust,  we  proceeded  on  our  way 
to  Jiddah. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
MECCA,  THE  MOSLEM'S  PALESTINE 

Pilgrimages  and  their  Significance — The  Supremacy  of  Mecca  as  a  Sa- 
cred Spot — Christian  Travellers  who  Have  Visited  Mecca — Ancient 
Cult  of  the  Kaaba — Cause  of  Accepting  Such  a  Cult — Mohammed's 
View  of  Pilgrimages  to  Mecca — Foundation  of  Mecca  and'  the  Kaaba 
— Stone  of  Abraham — Divine  Origin  of  the  "  Black  Stone  " — Spring 
of  "  Zem  Zem  " — Golden  Water  Trough — Sacred  Places  Situated 
near  the  Kaaba — Conditions  under  which  Pilgrimages  May  be  Made 
— Pilgrimages  of  Women  and  by  Proxy — Appearance  of  Hadj — 
"  Ihram  " — Day  of  Doubt,  Day  of  Knowledge,  Day  of  Sacrifice — 
Rites  Connected  with  these  Days — Mena,  Arafat — Stoning  the  Devil 
— Fete  of  Kurban  Bairam — Day  of  Drying  Meat  in  the  Sun — Why 
Mohammedans  are  Advised  to  Leave  Mecca  upon  the  Completion  of 
their  Obligatory  Rites — Population  of  Mecca — Causes  of  Mortality 
among  Pilgrims — Sanitary  Condition  of  Mecca  during  the  Hadj  of 
1907 — Prevalent  Diseases  and  their  Causes — Unfavourable  Condi- 
tions for  Carrying  Bodies  by  Sea — Quarantines. 

A  PILGRIMAGE  to  Mecca  is  the  highest  aspiration  of  every 
Mohammedan,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  dwell  with 
some  detail  on  this  phase  of  Moslem  life.  To  under- 
stand the  principles  underlying  the  idea  of  pilgrimage 
we  must  glance  at  the  origin  of  Mecca,  the  reason  for 
worshipping  the  Kaaba  and  the  black  stone,  as  well  as 
define  the  connection  between  the  ancient  idolaters  and 
Mohammedans.  One  must  also  understand  why  Mecca 
obtained  the  predominant  position  as  a  sacred  city,  re- 
ceiving the  palm  of  pre-eminence  even  above  Medina, 
although  the  Prophet  had  lived  in  the  latter  place  and  it 
became  the  first  seat  of  the  caliphs. 
The  epithets  used  by  Mohammedans  in  describing 

246 


MECCA,  THE   MOSLEM'S   PALESTINE    247 

Mecca  show  the  importance  this  place  has  in  their  eyes. 
There  is  a  list  of  these  epithets,  forming  quite  a  book. 
The  titles  most  used  are  "  Mukadass,"  "  sacred,"  "  Mu- 
kerremeh,"  "  holy,"  "  Belad-ul-Emin,"  "  metropolis." 
The  sacredness  of  the  city  is  so  great  that  the  Mohamme- 
dans claim  that  no  bird  except  the  dove,  which  is  held  to 
be  sacred,  dares  to  alight  on  the  roof  of  the  chief  mosque. 
Not  only  Mecca  itself  but  the  land  about  for  three  days' 
march  is  held  to  be  sacred,  and  no  unbeliever  to  the  pres- 
ent time  is  allowed,  under  pain  of  death,  to  defile  with 
his  presence  this  holy  ground.  The  restriction  is  of  very 
early  date,  originating  with  the  Caliph  Omar,  who  drove 
out  of  Mecca  and  Medina  all  Christians,  Jews  and  idola- 
ters. For  this  reason  there  can  be  no  consuls  at  any  of 
these  places,  and  it  was  only  in  the  seventies  of  the  past 
century  that  consuls  were  sent  to  Jiddah,  the  port  of 
Mecca,  and  even  then  an  attempt  was  made  by  fanatics 
to  massacre  these  European  representatives.  The  Chris- 
tians, who  in  one  disguise  or  another  have  visited  Mecca, 
are  very  few.  The  first  on  record  was  Ludovico  de  Var- 
thema,  in  1503,  then  Joseph  Pitts,  who,  becoming  a  slave, 
went  there  with  his  master,  in  1680.  In  the  nineteenth 
century  the  number  of  Christians  who  succeeded  in  reach- 
ing the  sacred  city  includes  Fenatti,  a  deserter,  who,  in 
1805,  passed  in  under  the  name  of  Mohammed.  Two  years 
later  Badia,  a  Spaniard,  obtained  entrance;  in  1809, 
Seetzen;  in  1811,  Burckhardt;  Rosh  in  1812;  and  Burton, 
who,  in  1853,  made  his  most  interesting  pilgrimage. 

The  reason  for  giving  Mecca  the  predominance  over 
Medina  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  while  Mohammed 
preached  a  new  religion,  he  was  obliged  to  have  regard 
for  the  beliefs  and  political  conditions  of  the  time. 
Among  these  was  the  cult  of  the  Kaaba,  supposed  to  be 
of  divine  origin,  the  black  stone  and  the  spring  of  "  Zem 
Zem,"  as  well  as  other  holy  places  of  ancient  days. 


248        LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

In  Mohammed's  time  the  Arabian  peninsula  presented 
something  like  a  federation  of  republics.  Each  tribe 
was  almost  independent  in  its  internal  government,  unit- 
ing only  in  matters  of  common  interest,  such  as  the  dec- 
laration of  war,  etc.  But  even  at  this  time  Mecca  had  a 
predominant  position,  owing  to  the  possession  of  the 
Kaaba,  the  black  stone,  and  the  well  of  Zem  Zem,  which 
was  revered  by  all.  The  government  of  Mecca  was  in 
the  hands  of  a  kind  of  Council  of  Six  and  later  of  Ten 
members  of  the  Koreish  tribe.  The  members  of  this 
council  were  called  Shereefs,  nobles,  princes,  and  at  the 
death  of  a  member  his  place  was  occupied  by  the  next 
in  age  in  the  tribe. 

Mohammed's  eloquent  teachings  soon  drew  to  him  fol- 
lowers, and  depending  upon  these  the  Prophet  undertook 
to  spread  his  religion  by  the  sword.  After  his  flight 
from  Mecca  Mohammed  settled  in  Medina,  and  only 
after  eight  years,  when  he  had  a  sufficiently  strong  force, 
did  he  march  with  10,000  followers  in  the  eighth  year  of 
the  hegira  upon  Mecca,  the  key  of  Arabia. 

Being  divided  by  internal  differences  Mecca  was  un- 
able to  make  a  stand,  and  Mohammed  occupied  the  city 
with  little  difficulty,  entering  it  more  as  a  protector  and 
well-wisher  than  as  a  conqueror.  Having  received  the 
key  and  the  sacred  Kaaba  on  January  22d,  630  of  our 
era,  he  mounted  his  camel  and  rode  seven  times  around 
the  Kaaba  and  the  black  stone,  before  which,  with  his 
"  mekdjin,"  or  sceptre,  in  his  hand,  he  bowed  in  worship. 
Then,  entering  the  Kaaba,  he  threw  down  all  the  idols 
contained  therein,  including  one  dedicated  to  Abraham, 
and  to  which  was  ascribed  a  divine  origin.  That  day  the 
Kaaba  was  dedicated  to  the  One  God,  and  as  a  memorial, 
but  only  as  such,  to  the  patriarchs  Adam,  Noah,  Abra- 
ham, Isaac  and  others. 

The  following  year  we  find  Mohammed  ordaining  pil- 


MECCA,  THE  MOSLEM'S   PALESTINE    249 

grimages  as  obligatory  to  his  followers.  He  ordered  all 
the  inhabitants  of  Medina  to  perform  a  Had],  and  sent 
Abu-Bekr,  with  the  title  of  "  Emir-el-Hadj,"  at  the  head 
of  an  immense  caravan.  This  title  was  given  later  on  by 
the  sultans  of  Turkey  to  the  leader  of  the  so-called  "  sa- 
cred caravan  "  carrying  each  year  the  gifts  of  the  sultan 
to  Mecca. 

Finally,  again  in  632  Mohammed,  himself  at  the  head 
of  114,000  pilgrims,  set  out  for  Mecca,  taking  with  him 
his  wives  and  relatives.  Here  he  fulfilled  all  the  ancient 
ceremonies  and  then  added  others,  to  which  he  gave  his 
explanations.  At  this  time  he  settled  the  period  for  the 
great  Had],  or  Hajj,  so  as  to  coincide  with  the  fete  of 
Kurban  Bairam,  the  loth  Zelhadjie.  Soon  after  his  return 
from  the  pilgrimage  the  Great  Prophet  died  in  Medina. 
And  so  we  see  that  while  founding  a  new  religion  Mo- 
hammed took  into  consideration  the  traditions  and  reli- 
gions of  those  about  him,  heathen,  Christian  and  Jewish, 
and  gave  them  his  own  interpretation.  More  than  this, 
he  made  it  obligatory  for  his  followers  to  make  pilgrim- 
ages to  places  long  considered  sacred  by  idolaters,  com- 
manding all  true  believers  who  have  the  means  to  do  so 
to  visit  Mecca.  In  the  22d  Sura  it  says,  "  And  proclaim 
unto  the  people  a  solemn  pilgrimage,  let  them  come  unto 
thee  on  foot,  and  on  every  lean  camel  arriving  from  every 
distant  road;  that  they  may  be  witnesses  of  the  advan- 
tages which  accrue  to  them  from  the  visiting  this  holy 
place."  Every  true  Moslem  makes  it  his  aim  to  make 
at  least  once  in  his  life  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and  in 
passing,  but  only  in  passing,  to  worship  also  in  Medina. 
Those  who  cannot  go  themselves  and  have  the  means, 
hire  someone  to  perform  the  Hadj  for  them.  As  the 
distances  travelled  by  Moslems  in  performing  their  pil- 
grimages are  very  great,  coming  as  they  do  from  India, 
.China  and  Kazan,  and  the  expense  being  correspondingly 


250         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

heavy,  one  might  infer  that  only  the  rich  would  be  able 
to  accomplish  it.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  even  the 
poor  are  found  among  the  pilgrims  spending  the  last  cent 
that  they  have  for  years  hoarded  up  for  this  purpose. 

Others  get  the  means  for  making  the  pilgrimage  in  dis- 
honest ways,  hoping  the  sin  will  be  forgiven  in  view  of 
the  motive.  I  have  personally  known  of  several  cases 
when  pilgrimages  were  performed  in  this  way  on  money 
stolen  for  the  purpose,  and  two  cases  when  the  murder  of 
unbelievers  furnished  the  means.  Killing  an  unbeliever 
is  not  considered  to  be  as  heavy  a  crime  as  the  murder  of 
a  Mohammedan,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  chapter  on  the 
price  of  blood. 

The  above  brief  survey  of  the  history  of  pilgrimages 
explains  the  great  flood  of  Mohammedans  that  annually 
pours  into  Mecca  from  every  part  of  the  Moslem  world. 
According  to  tradition  the  number  of  pilgrims  gathered 
in  Mecca  for  the  Kurban  Bairam  cannot  be  less  than  70,- 
ooo  each  year,  as  that  is  the  number  ordained  by  Heaven. 
In  fact,  however,  there  are  years  when  the  number 
mounts  to  300,000,  especially  in  the  years  when  the  Bai- 
ram falls  on  a  Friday,  when  according  to  Mohammedan 
belief  based  on  the  Koran,  this  one  Hadj  equals  seventy 
ordinary  pilgrimages. 

In  earlier  days,  before  the  cutting  of  the  Suez  Canal, 
the  pilgrim  routes  were  five:  first,  through  the  Sinai 
peninsula;  secondly,  by  way  of  Damascus,  the  route  now 
followed  by  the  "  sacred  caravan " ;  thirdly,  by  way  of 
the  Yemen;  fourthly,  through  Muscat;  and  fifthly, 
through  Mesopotamia.  Since  the  opening  of  the  Suez 
route  the  Mohammedans  prefer  the  sea  voyage,  and  only 
those  who  wish  to  include  Kerbela  and  Nedjef  in  their 
pilgrimage  follow  the  old  route  through  Nejd.  Pil- 
grims from  India  go  in  English  steamers,  and  the  same 
means  are  often  chosen  by  those  coming  from  the  south 


MECCA,   THE   MOSLEM'S   PALESTINE    251 

of  Persia  arfd  from  the  eastern  part  of  our  Central  Asiatic 
Provinces.  A  very  large  number  of  pilgrims  from  Rus- 
sia, Tartars,  Sarts,  Kirghiz,  Bukhariots,  Turkomans, 
Ocetines  and  some  Persians  go  by  way  of  the  Black  Sea. 
Of  these,  two-thirds  return  from  Jiddah,  the  port  of 
Mecca,  and  one-third  from  Yambu,  the  port  of  Medina, 
according  to  which  of  the  sacred  cities  they  visited  last. 

The  Mohammedan  traditions  give  the  following  ex- 
planation of  the  origin  of  the  Kaaba  and  of  Mecca: 

Abraham,  fearing  the  persecutions  of  Nimrod,  fled,  to- 
gether with  his  wife,  Sarah,  who  was  also  his  half-sister, 
to  Egypt.  The  reigning  Pharaoh,  on  seeing  Sarah,  who 
was  exceedingly  fair,  became  enamoured  of  her,  but  the 
instant  he  touched  her  his  hand  became  withered  and  an 
invisible  power  threw  him  to  the  ground.  Taking  pity 
on  the  king's  entreaties,  Sarah  prayed  God  for  his  for- 
giveness, and  her  prayers  being  answered,  Pharaoh's 
hand  became  as  before.  As  a  thank-offering  for  her  in- 
tercession, he  presented  Sarah  with  a  very  beautiful  slave, 
Hagar.  Sarah,  having  no  children,  gave  this  slave  to 
her  husband,  praying  at  the  same  time  that  they  might 
have  children.  This  prayer  was  heard,  and  Hagar  bore 
a  son  whom  they  named  Ishmael.  Soon  after,  jealousy 
arose  between  Hagar  and  Sarah,  to  whom  in  the  mean- 
time a  son  had  also  been  born,  and  Abraham,  losing  pa- 
tience, took  Hagar  and  her  son  into  the  desert  of  Arabia 
and  left  them  on  the  very  spot  where  the  city  of  Mecca 
was  afterwards  built.  Their  water  giving  out,  Hagar 
and  Ishmael  wandered  a  long  time  in  the  desert  search- 
ing in  vain  for  a  well.  When  nearly  exhausted,  the 
angel  Gabriel  appeared  and  alighted  on  the  spot  where 
is  to-day  the  well  of  Zem  Zem.  He  waved  his  wings  and 
a  spring  of  water  immediately  appeared,  which  is  to-day 
one  of  the  chief  objects  of  veneration  in  Mecca.  Drawn 
by  the  water,  birds  began  to  flock  about  the  well,  and  the 


252         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

i 
inhabitants  of  Yemen,  noticing  it,  came  to  seek  the  cause. 

Finding  that  there  was  water,  they,  with  the  consent  of 
Hagar,  settled  there.  Eventually  Ishmael  married  the 
daughter  of  Megas-ibn-Amr,  who  was  the  chief  of  that 
tribe  and  the  founder  of  Mecca. 

In  later  years  Abraham  came  to  see  his  son.  Here  he 
was  welcomed  by  his  former  wife  and  settled  down  with 
them  there,  and  built  in  Mecca  the  Kaaba  as  a  temple  for 
the  worship  of  the  One  God.  Working  on  the  Kaaba, 
Abraham  employed,  instead  of  a  ladder,  a  stone  called 
the  "  happy  stone."  This  stone  is  pointed  out  to-day  on 
the  spot  called  "  Makaami  Ibrahim,"  and  is  visited  by 
all  pilgrims.  The  Kaaba,  as  built  by  Abraham,  was, 
however,  according  to  Mohammedan  tradition,  the 
fourth.  The  first  Kaaba  was  created  by  God  before  the 
creation  of  the  world,  the  second  was  built  by  Adam,  the 
third  by  Seth.  Then  after  Abraham  the  Kaaba  was  re- 
built by  Amalek,  the  descendant  of  Shem ;  the  sixth  time 
it  was  built  in  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  by  the 
tribe  of  Beni  Djugash;  the  seventh  time  by  Kucalmbin- 
Kullab,  the  great-great-grandfather  of  Mohammed,  but 
this  Kaaba  was  destroyed  by  fire  and  in  its  place  an  eighth 
temple  was  erected  when  the  Prophet  was  twenty-four 
years  old.  This  Kaaba  was  also  injured  by  fire,  and, 
therefore,  in  the  64th  year  of  the  hegira  a  ninth  building 
was  raised  by  Hadjad-bin-Yousif.  In  the  year  1005  of 
the  hegira  a  part  of  the  building  was  destroyed  by  flood, 
and  again  work  was  begun  which  continued  ten  years, 
completing  the  Kaaba  as  we  now  see  it,  leaving,  how- 
ever, a  part  of  the  old  building  of  64  H.  This,  at 
least,  is  the  most  popular  account  of  the  origin  of  the 
Kaaba. 

With  regard  to  the  "  black  stone "  the  same  Moham- 
medan sources  give  the  following  details : 

One  day  when  Abraham  was  walking  through  the 


MECCA,  THE  MOSLEM'S   PALESTINE    253 

Wady  Nauman,  the  site  of  the  present  Mecca,  the  angel 
Gabriel  touched  him  on  the  shoulder  and  stopped  him. 
At  the  touch  a  legion  of  formless  beings  sprang  from  the 
body  of  the  patriarch ;  these  were  his  future  descendants, 
the  whole  of  posterity.  The  spirits  divided  themselves 
into  two  groups,  on  the  right  and  left  sides  of  Abraham. 
The  first  group  formed  those  who  were  to  be  Mohamme- 
dans, the  second  those  of  various  other  religions.  Then 
God  appeared  in  a  cloud  and  asked  the  spirits  if  they  ac- 
cepted him  as  the  one  God,  to  which,  as  one  voice,  came 
the  answer,  "  Labbayka  Allahouma,"  "  I  am  here,  ready 
to  serve  Thee,  my  God."  This  exclamation  forms  the 
subject  for  the  prayer  called  "Telbiet,"  one  of  the  most 
important  of  those  repeated  by  the  pilgrims.  Basing 
their  belief  on  this  tradition,  the  Mohammedans  claim 
that  every  human  being  is  born  a  Moslem,  and  after- 
wards may  or  may  not  become  the  follower  of  some 
other  faith. 

After  this  God  gave  his  commandments  in  a  secret 
writing  inscribed  upon  a  black  stone,  that  Adam  had 
taken  with  him  when  driven  out  of  Eden.  This  stone 
was  taken  by  the  Almighty  to  the  mountain  of  Djabel- 
abi-Kubeiess,  and  later  on  given,  through  his  angel  Ga- 
briel, to  Abraham  while  the  latter  was  building  the 
Kaaba,  commanding  him  to  place  it  in  the  southwest  cor- 
ner of  the  Kaaba,  to  indicate  the  spot  from  which  pil- 
grims were  to  begin  their  ceremonies. 

This  is  the  explanation  given  for  the  deep  veneration 
with  which  this  stone  is  regarded  by  all  true  believers. 
Their  consternation  and  woe  may  therefore  be  under- 
stood when  in  the  tenth  century,  during  a  civil  war,  this 
sacred  stone  was  carried  off  by  the  tribe  of  Karamat,  who 
were  at  war  with  the  Mohammedan  tribes.  It  was  only 
after  a  lapse  of  twenty-two  years  that  the  stone  was  re- 
turned to  its  place. 


254         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

In  1023  A.D.  the  Mohammedan  world  was  again 
thrown  into  excitement,  this  time  by  a  case  of  unheard-of 
blasphemy. 

As  a  religious  procession  passed  around  the  Kaaba  to 
kiss  this  stone  a  fanatic  sprang  out  from  the  crowd  and 
struck  the  sacred  relic  three  times  with  an  iron  weapon 
that  he  carried,  crying,  "  How  long  will  this  black  stone, 
Mohammed,  and  Ali,  be  the  objects  of  our  worship? 
Let  us  pull  down  the  temple  and  under  its  ruins  bury 
Mohammedanism!"  The  infuriated  multitude  fell 
upon  the  blasphemer  and  literally  tore  him  to  pieces  and 
burned  his  remains.  A  stringent  search  was  made,  but 
in  spite  of  tortures  and  executions,  the  identity  of  the  un- 
known person  was/never  discovered.  The  heavy  blows 
had  cracked  the  stone  and  the  injury  is  now  repaired  by 
a  band  of  silver-/ 

To  the  sacrea  places  in  Mecca  must  be  added  the  well 
of  Zem  Zem,  above  mentioned. 

Finally,  a  fourth  object  of  worship  must  be  noted, 
namely,  the  Myzab,  or  water  spout,  said  to  be  of  pure 
gold,  made  to  carry  off  the  rain  from  the  flat  roof  of  the 
Kaaba.  This  water  is  considered  as  holy,  and  during  the 
rains  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  rush  to  wash  in  it  and  tQ 
collect  a  supply.  When  the  pilgrimages  take  place  in 
the  rainy  season,  this  spout  is  the  cause  of  many  fatal 
accidents,  as  the  pilgrims,  numbering  sometimes  over 
200,000,  in  their  frantic  attempts  to  get  a  few  drops  of 
this  sacred  water,  crowd  and  throw  each  other  down,  so 
that  the  successful  ones  often  get  to  their  object  over  the 
bodies  of  their  fellow  pilgrims. 

The  Kaaba  is  situated  almost  in  the  centre  of  a  large 
court  or  square  that  is  250  by  2 10  paces  in  size.  The  court 
is  surrounded  by  a  gallery  of  four  rows  of  columns,  of 
which  every  four  columns  are  capped  by  a  dome ;  in  this 
way  the  gallery  is  formed  by  four  rows  of  columns  con- 
nected and  covered  by  domes  to  the  number  of  150.  This 


MECCA,   THE   MOSLEM'S   PALESTINE    255 

gallery,  built  by  Selim  II.,  forms  a  mosque  known  as  the 
Mosque  of  the  Shereefs.  Raised  paved  paths  lead  from 
this  gallery  to  the  Kaaba.  The  Kaaba  itself  is  a  massive 
building  18  paces  long  by  14  wide,  and  rises  to  a  height 
of  40  feet.  As  the  roof  is  flat  the  edifice  presents  the 
form  of  a  cube.  The  only  door,  which  is  studded  with 
silver,  is  on  the  north  side,  and  is  about  seven  feet  from 
the  ground,  so  that  a  ladder  has  to  be  placed  to  enter  it 
when  the  door  is  opened,  which  is  done  but  two  or  three 
times  each  year.  The  entrance  is  lighted  at  night  by  wax 
candles,  and  censers  of  sweet-smelling  incense  are  placed 
there.  Over  the  entire  building  is  thrown  a  black  silk 
covering,  the  gift  of  the  sultan,  the  honour  of  sending 
which  was  long  the  object  of  contention  between  the  rul- 
ers of  the  East.  At  the  northeast  corner  of  the  Kaaba 
is  the  black  stone,  an  irregular  oval,  about  seven  inches 
in  diameter.  It  appears  to  be  composed  of  small  stones 
of  various  sizes  set  in  cement  and  kept  together  by  a  sil- 
ver band.  The  surface  of  the  stone  is  smoothly  polished 
by  the  kisses  of  the  millions  of  pilgrims,  and  is  of  a  dark 
brown,  almost  black  colour.  The  Mohammedans  say  it 
was  originally  white,  but  became  black  from  the  kisses  of 
sinful  pilgrims. 

Near  the  Kaaba  is  a  small  hollow,  lined  with  marble, 
where  Abraham  and  his  son  Ishmael  mixed  the  cement 
for  the  building  of  the  Kaaba,  and  here  also  it  is  consid- 
ered meritorious  to  pray.  Among  other  special  places  of 
veneration  are  the  tombs  of  Ishmael  and  his  mother, 
Hagar. 

The  idea  of  covering  the  Kaaba,  which  dates  from  p re- 
Moslem  times,  possibly  arose  from  the  metaphors  often 
used  in  ancient  times  in  describing  it  as  "  the  bride,"  as 
is  found  in  Arab  poetry.  The  same  comparison  is  traced 
in  the  fact  of  eunuchs  being  chosen  as  its  guardians.  The 
covering  is  called  the  "  Kesvieh-Shereef,"  sacred  cover- 
ing. In  the  early  years  of  the  Mohammedan  era  this 


256         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

covering  was  changed  once  a  year  and  later  on  twice — » 
on  the  loth  of  Muharram  and  the  8th  of  Zelhadjie — a 
day  before  the  eve  of  Kurban  Bairam.  Under  the  Abbas- 
sides  the  covering  was  changed  three  times  a  year. 

For  a  long  time  the  privilege  of  furnishing  the  cover- 
ing was  contested  between  the  rulers  of  the  Yemen  and 
Egypt,  until  in  1283  A.D.  the  then  sultan  of  Egypt, 
Melek  Kalavun,  obtained  the  right.  The  desire  to  have 
this  privilege  was  so  great  that  the  Eastern  potentates 
were  ready  to  obtain  it  by  arms  if  necessary.  The  son  of 
Timur,  Shahruk,  for  instance,  on  receiving  a  refusal 
from  the  sultan  of  Egypt,  to  whom  he  appealed  for  per- 
mission to  send  a  covering,  sent  an  officer  to  Mecca  who 
bribed  the  Shereef  to  allow  him  to  cover  the  Kaaba  in 
the  name  of  his  master.  This  led  to  an  open  rupture, 
and  the  Egyptians  prepared  for  war,  sending  a  special 
envoy  to  Murad  II.  asking  for  his  aid.  The  death  of  the 
Egyptian  ruler  and  the  consequent  internal  troubles,  how- 
ever, prevented  a  war,  and  Shahruk  carried  out  his  de- 
termination and  the  Kaaba  was  covered  with  his  gift. 
This  rivalry  was  stopped,  finally,  by  Selim  I.,  who,  after 
conquering  Egypt,  assumed  the  privilege  of  sending  the 
covering  for  the  Kaaba  as  his  exclusive  right,  and  this 
has  continued  down  to  our  time,  when  the  starting  of  the 
sacred  caravan  from  Scutari  has  long  been  one  of  the  in- 
teresting sights  of  Constantinople. 

The  covering  is  still  made  in  Egypt,  by  the  family  of 
Beit-u-Sazdu.  It  is  made  of  a  stuff  woven  for  the  pur- 
pose with  a  border  of  verses  from  the  Koran  and  the 
name  of  the  reigning  sultan  written  in  very  distinct  char- 
acters, known  as  the  "Tumar."  On  the  arrival  of  the 
new  covering,  the  old  one  is  removed  and  cut  into  bits 
and  sold  at  a  great  price  to  pilgrims.  The  larger  pieces 
are  purchased  by  mosques,  to  be  used  in  the  covering  of 
the  tomb  of  some  celebrated  person  who  may  be  buried 


within  its  walls.  The  smaller  pieces  are  bought  by  indi- 
viduals and  cherished  as  most  sacred  heirlooms.  When 
the  Kurban  Bairam  falls  on  a  Friday,  as  it  does  every 
seventh  year,  the  year  of  the  "great"  Hadj,  or  "  Hadj-el- 
Akbar,"  the  old  covering  of  the  Kaaba  is  sent  to  the 
sultan. 

Near  the  Kaaba  are  four  pavilions  for  the  four  chief 
Sunnite  sects,  the  Shafey,  Hanefy,  Hanbaly  and  Maleky, 
where  the  respective  religious  leaders  or  imams  teach  the 
pilgrims  the  rites  and  ceremonies  which  must  accompany 
their  devotions.  There  is  also  a  pavilion  over  the  well 
Zem  Zem  in  the  form  of  an  arch  called  "  Babu-s-Salam." 
There  are  many  smaller  "  stations,"  at  each  of  which  the 
pilgrims  halt  and  repeat  special  prayers. 

The  expression  pilgrimage,  or  "  Hadj/'  as  given  in  the 
Arabic,  includes  in  its  origin  the  conception  of  the  de- 
sire or  intention  of  performing  an  act  the  performance 
of  which  gives  the  right  of  entrance  into  Paradise.  The 
very  expression  indicates  that  man  is  a  passing  traveller 
here  and  that  his  aim  should  be  for  something  that  would 
lead  him  on  to  something  better,  and  the  chief  means  of 
obtaining  this  is  by  visiting  God's  house  in  Mecca. 

Much  has  been  written  by  Mohammedan  theologians 
as  to  the  aims  and  obligations  of  pilgrimages,  and  while 
there  are  many  conflicting  opinions  as  to  details,  there 
are  four  principles  upon  which  all  agree : 

1.  Islam,  being  a  Moslem. 

2.  Adolescence.     If  a  pilgrimage  be  made  by  a  minor, 
the  act  does  not  count  and  the  pilgrimage  must  be  re- 
peated on  reaching  manhood. 

3.  A  state  of  freedom.     If,  therefore,  a  slave,  when 
accompanying  his  master,  performs  a  pilgrimage  and 
afterwards  obtains  freedom,  the  Hadj  performed  while 
in  bondage  is  null  and  void. 

4.  Mental  sanity. 


258         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

To  these  four  principles,  acknowledged  by  all,  some 
schools  add  the  following  four: 

1.  Possession  of  sufficient  means  to  perform  the  jour- 
ney after  having  paid  all  debts  and  left  enough  to  sup- 
port the  family.     This  condition  is  very  rarely  observed. 
Many  go  into  debt  to  obtain  the  money,  or,  as  mentioned, 
resort  to  still  more  objectionable  means ;  others  make  the 
entire  Hadj  on  charity. 

2.  The  possession  of  a  beast  of  burden  if  the  pilgrim 
lives  at  a  greater  distance  than  two  days'  march  from 
Mecca. 

3.  Safety  of  the  route.    This  condition  is  never  ob- 
served, owing  to  the  popular  belief  that  the  greater  the 
dangers  and  hardships  encountered,  the  greater  will  be 
the  merit. 

4.  Possession  of  sufficient  physical  strength  to  walk 
two  marches  in  case  a  riding  beast  is  not  owned. 

Many  other  details  have  been  the  subject  of  hot  discus- 
sions among  theologians,  as,  for  instance,  if  a  Hadj  is 
obligatory  for  the  blind  or  maimed.  Such  controversies, 
as  might  be  expected,  end  in  an  evasive  decision. 

As  to  women,  they  may  perform  a  pilgrimage  only 
when  they  are  accompanied  by  husband  or  near  relation, 
and  this  person  is  called  "  mahrem."  He  must  be  a  per- 
son of  reliable  character  and  mature  age.  The  journey 
expenses  of  such  "  mahrem  "  are  borne  by  the  lady. 
Some  theologians  consider  the  consent  of  the  husband  as 
indispensable;  others  hold  that  a  woman  may  undertake 
it  even  in  opposition  to  his  wishes. 

All  commentators  agree  in  considering  pilgrimages 
performed  by  proxy  as  acceptable  to  God  as  regards  the 
one  who  sends  his  representative,  but  it  is  not  regarded  as 
a  Hadj  for  the  person  actually  performing  it.  Pilgrim- 
ages by  proxy  are,  however,  only  admissible  to  those  un- 
able to  perform,  personally,  the  journey,  such  as  to  one 


MECCA,   THE   MOSLEM'S    PALESTINE    259 

who  is  an  invalid.  One  undertaking  a  pilgrimage  for 
another  is  known  as  "  Mahmyr-be-l'-Hadj."  Such  a 
pilgrimage  may  be  performed  only  at  the  expense  of  the 
one  represented.  A  pilgrimage  in  the  name  of  the  dead 
is  also  admitted.  If,  on  dying,  special  sums  are  not 
named  for  this  object,  it  is  possible  for  a  son  or  friend  to 
make  the  pilgrimage  for  the  dead  at  his  own  expense. 

Pilgrimages  by  proxy  are  very  common,  and  under 
various  pretexts  are  often  resorted  to  by  those  having  the 
means  to  hire  another  to  go  in  his  stead. 

Every  aid  given  to  pilgrims  is  set  down  as  a  merit  to 
the  giver.  For  this  reason  the  sultan  gives  steamers  for 
the  transport  of  pilgrims.  In  such  ways  do  Oriental 
padishahs  endeavour  to  make  up  for  the  failure  on  their 
part  in  complying  with  one  of  the  most  positive  com- 
mands of  the  Prophet. 

The  Moslem  religion  distinguishes  pilgrimages  as 
being  of  three  categories : 

1.  Umra,  the  lesser  pilgrimage  undertaken  at  any  time 
of  the  year. 

2.  Hadj,  that  can  be  performed  only  at  stated  months 
and  days  of  the  Mohammedan  calendar. 

3.  "  Hadj-el-Akbar,"  the  Great  Hadj,  when  the  day 
of  Arafat  falls  on  a  Friday.     For  our  purposes  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  become  acquainted  with  but  one  of  these 
three  forms. 

The  Hadj  must  take  place  in  the  month  of  Zelhadjie, 
the  ceremony  continuing  for  three  days,  the  8th,  9th  and 
loth,  on  which  latter  day  is  the  "  Eidu-l'-Kurban,"  the 
feast  of  sacrifices.  Then  follow  three  days,  the  nth,  lath 
and  i3th,  known  as  the  " Ayyum-el-Tashrik,"  or  "the 
days  of  drying  flesh  in  the  sun,"  when  the  pilgrims  dry 
mutton  to  serve  as  food  on  their  return  journey. 

The  details  connected  with  the  pilgrimages  and  rites 
to  be  performed  at  each  station  are  very  complicated  and 


a6o         LIFE  IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST, 

exacting,  the  failure  to  observe  which  would  mean  the 
invalidation  of  the  whole  Hadj.  To  help  the  pilgrims, 
the  majority  of  whom  may  be  illiterate  persons,  who  have 
perhaps  spent  their  all  on  the  pilgrimage,  an  offering  is 
permitted  of  a  sheep  or  camel,  according  to  the  gravity 
of  the  omission  or  mistake  committed.  The  flesh  of  the 
sacrifice  is  divided  among  the  poor.  To  render  the  pil- 
grimage effective  the  following  forms  must  be  observed: 

First  of  all,  on  approaching  Mecca  the  pilgrim  must 
halt  at  a  certain  spot,  according  to  the  route  taken,  the 
common  name  for  such  a  station  being  "  mekat." 

At  the  mekat  the  pilgrim,  after  prescribed  prayers, 
cuts  his  nails,  shaves  his  head  and  puts  on  the  "  ihram," 
or  white  attire,  which  is  thrown  over  the  shoulder  and 
knotted  on  one  side.  The  head  is  bare  and  no  under- 
linen  is  worn.  From  this  time  he  is  forbidden  to  cut  his 
nails  or  to  kill  any  living  creature,  not  even  the  parasites, 
which,  in  passing,  it  may  be  said,  accompany  the  Hadj  in 
generous  numbers.  After  this  toilette  the  pilgrims  re- 
peat prayers,  that  of  the  Telbiet  Labbaya  being  most  fre- 
quently repeated  in  the  following  words : 

"  Here  I  am !     O  Allah,  here  am  I — 

No  partner  hast  thou,  here  am  I ; 
Verily  the  praise  and  the  beneficence  are  thine,  and  the 

kingdom — 
No  partner  hast  thou,  here  am  I ! " 

Many  pilgrims  time  their  journey  so  as  to  be  at  the 
"mekat"  (appointed  spot)  the  ist  of  the  lunar  month  of 
Zilkade,  and  then  the  pilgrim  wears  the  ihram  nearly 
forty  days,  namely,  until  the  loth  of  the  following  month, 
Zelhadjie.  The  majority,  however,  in  order  to  econo- 
mise time,  arrive  some  ten  days  before  Kurban  Bairam. 

The  three  days  of  pilgrimage  commemorate  Abra- 
ham's sacrifice  of  his  son  Ishmael  (not  Isaac,  as  the  Bible 
states)^. 


MECCA,  THE   MOSLEM'S   PALESTINE    261 

On  the  8th  of  Zelhadjie,  according  to  the  Moslem  be- 
lief, Abraham  first  heard  the  voice  from  heaven  com- 
manding him  to  sacrifice  his  dearest. 

All  that  day  (bearing  in  mind  that  Mohammedan  days 
begin  at  sunset)  Abraham  was  in  doubt  as  to  the  voice 
being  that  of  God  or  of  an  evil  spirit.  This  day  is  there- 
fore known  as  "  Yaum-t-Tarwiyah,"  or  day  of  doubt. 
On  the  following  day  the  voice  being  again  heard,  Abra- 
ham knew  it  was  God's  command,  and  this  day,  the  9th, 
is  therefore  known  as  "Yaum  Arafaat,"  day  of  knowl- 
edge. Though  convinced,  Abraham  waited  one  day 
more,  and  on  the  command  being  repeated,  definitely  de- 
cided to  sacrifice  Ishmael  on  the  loth  day,  called  Eidu- 
1-Kurban,"  or  feast  of  sacrifice. 

Omitting  the  minor  details  of  the  devotions  prescribed 
at  the  Kaaba  and  black  stone,  I  shall  pass  to  a  general  de- 
scription of  the  ceremonials  on  the  sacred  days. 

The  day  before  the  great  8th  day  the  mullahs  explain 
to  the  congregated  pilgrims  the  sacredness  and  signifi- 
cance of  the  following  days. 

At  sunrise  on  the  morning  of  the  8th,  after  prayer,  the 
pilgrims  leave  Mecca  for  Mina,  a  village  about  three 
miles  from  Mecca.  This  little  village  is  of  very  great 
importance  in  the  pilgrimage.  The  immense  multitude, 
often  of  aoOjOOO,1  flows  in  a  turbulent  stream  towards 
Mina.  All  are  bareheaded,  barefooted  and  clad  only 
in  the  white  ihram.  Here  one  sees  the  richer  Bedouins 
on  camels  or  horseback,  some  pilgrims  on  mules  or  asses, 
others  on  foot;  each  tries  to  push  ahead  of  his  fellows,  and 
the  crowding  is  terrible.  Often  many  of  the  old  and  in- 
firm who  have  survived  the  fatigues  and  dangers  of  the 

1  In  1907,  at  the  time  of  the  Had],  the  pilgrim's  in  Mecca  were  estimated 
to  be  290,000,  divided  intci  the  following  groups:  from  Turkey,  113,000; 
Beluchistan,  12,000;  India,  45,000;  Russia,  16,000;  Persia,  15,000;  Sudan, 
13,000;  Morocco,  17,000;  Algiers  and  Tunis,  45,000,  and  from  Afghanistan, 
10,000. 


262         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

long  journey  give  out  at  last,  unable  to  continue,  and  lie 
down  by  the  roadside  to  die,  comforting  themselves  at 
the  last  moment  that  their  hour  struck  when  they  were 
on  sacred  ground.  No  one  pays  any  attention  to  them, 
each  being  busy  with  his  own  religious  duties. 

From  Mina  to  the  mountain  of  Arafat,  which  the  pil- 
grims must  reach  the  same  day,  is  about  nine  miles.  Soon 
after  leaving  Mina,  a  place  is  passed  called  "  Batu-el- 
Muhassir,"  the  basin  of  the  tempter,  for  here  the  devil 
tempted  Adam,  Abraham,  and  Ishmael.  From  this 
place  the  road  leads  to  a  mosque,  "  Muzdalef ah,"  the 
place  dedicated  to  religious  ceremonials.  Here  the  noon- 
day prayer  is  made,  and  then  they  continue  their  march 
to  Arafat.  Here  tradition  says  that  Adam  found  Eve, 
from  whom  he  had  been  separated  after  their  expulsion 
from  the  garden  of  Eden. 

After  devotions  the  pilgrims  camp  on  the  mountain 
side,  tents  are  put  up,  improvised  shops  opened,  and  as 
far  as  one  can  see  the  ravine  and  slopes  are  covered  with 
the  multitude.  As  in  the  disorderly  march  many  compan- 
ions or  members  of  the  same  family  lose  each  other,  they 
may  be  seen  searching  among  the  tents  and  calling  with 
a  loud  voice  to  their  fellows.  One  hears  many  women's 
names  called,  though  it  is  not  a  Moslem  custom  to  do  so 
in  public.  "Oh,  Fatima,"  "Oh,  Zobeeda,"  "Oh, 
Zeinab,"  ring  through  the  camp,  and  yet  it  is  not  a  search 
for  strayed  women.  It  seems  that  women  who  are  unable 
to  make  the  pilgrimage  often  hire  some  one  to  call  out 
their  name  on  this  great  day,  hoping  thus  to  gain  some 
merit 

The  confusion,  unavoidable  with  such  great  crowds, 
gives  opportunities  for  crimes  that  are  committed  in  spite 
of  the  sacredness  of  the  time  and  place.  Bedouins  often 
come  here  seeking  the  life  of  the  object  of  an  old  blood 
feud,  hoping  to  find  the  moment  for  giving  the  final  blow. 


MECCA,   THE   MOSLEM'S    PALESTINE    263 

It  is  easy  to  imagine  the  unsanitary  condition  of  the 
camp  formed  of  so  many  thousands  who  take  absolutely 
no  steps  to  ensure  cleanliness,  and  even  those  accustomed 
to  the  filth  of  many  Eastern  cities  find  the  stench  hard  to 
bear.  Early  in  the  morning  of  the  9th  of  Zelhadjie  the 
pilgrims  are  awakened  by  the  firing  of  a  cannon,  and  after 
the  usual  morning  prayer  they  visit  all  the  designated 
places  found  on  the  mountain,  where  mullahs  preach  to 
them. 

At  three  o'clock  a  solemn  procession  is  formed  with  the 
Shereef  of  Mecca  at  its  head.  Here  the  crowding  be- 
comes frightful.  On  the  top  of  the  mountain  the  chief 
imam  preaches  a  sermon  that  lasts  three  hours,  almost  to 
sundown,  and  the  pilgrims  listen  to  it  standing.  At  the 
close  of  the  sermon  sobbings  and  lamentations  are  heard. 
Many  go  into  a  religious  frenzy  and  hysterics.  Loud 
cries  of  "  Labbayak!  "  ring  from  all  sides,  and  then  begins 
the  most  dangerous  and  fatiguing  part  of  the  ceremony, 
that  of  " El-Dafu-min-Araf aat,"  or  the  "hurry  from 
Arafat." 

As  this  begins  about  sunset  in  a  land  where  there  is  no 
twilight  to  speak  of,  darkness  soon  sets  in  upon  the  horde 
of  jostling,  pushing  camels,  horses,  mules  and  asses,  among 
which  the  foot  travellers  are  crushed  and  crowded.  Par- 
ties lose  each  other,  husbands  their  wives,  parents  their 
children.  Blows  are  given  and  received,  sometimes  even 
a  dagger  prick  to  force  an  opening,  and  screams  and  cries 
mix  with  the  "  Labbayaks."  In  this  bedlam  the  only 
idea  of  each  one  is  to  push  forward.  In  this  order  or  dis- 
order the  retreat  is  made  until  a  place  is  reached  called 
"  Muzdalefah,"  where  the  weary  pilgrims  camp  for  the 
night.  Here  each  one  is  obliged  to  pick  up  several  peb- 
bles about  the  size  of  a  bean  for  the  next  day's  ceremony 
of  stoning  the  devil. 

At  daybreak  on  the  icth  of  Zelhadjie,  namely,  on  the 


264         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

day  of  Kurban  Bairam,  the  cannon  again  awakes  the  mul- 
titude, who  hurry  on  to  Mina.  Near  the  entrance  of  this 
village  is  the  "  Sheitan-el-Kebir,"  the  "  Great  Devil,"  a 
small  buttress  about  eight  feet  high.  Against  this  each 
of  the  pilgrims  is  obliged  to  throw,  in  a  certain  manner, 
one  by  one  his  seven  stones,  exclaiming:  "  In  the  name 
of  Allah!"  and  "Allah  is  mighty!"  "I  do  this  in  ha- 
tred of  the  Fiend  and  to  his  shame! " 

Here  the  ihram  is  removed,  barbers  are  ready  to  shave 
the  heads,  trim  beards,  and  bring  the  pilgrims  back  to 
their  normal  condition. 

The  return  from  Mina  to  Mecca,  where  again  the 
black  stone  is  worshipped,  is  called  "  the  flight."  On 
their  arrival  at  Mecca,  those  who  have  not  done  so  be- 
fore "  stoning  the  Devil "  now  offer  their  sacrifices. 
Every  pilgrim,  however  poor,  tries  to  buy  a  sheep. 
Others  richer  buy  several  of  them.  From  every  part  of 
the  province  flocks  are  driven  to  Mecca  for  this  great 
event.  The  sheep  are  killed  in  the  Mohammedan  way, 
being  laid  on  the  ground  with  heads  turned  towards  the 
Kaaba,  the  butcher  exclaiming,  "  Bismillahie  Allahu 
Akbaru ! "  The  sheep  are  slain  where  most  convenient, 
in  front  of  the  tents,  anywhere,  and  the  ground  becomes 
literally  soaked  with  blood,  that  in  the  heat  soon  decom- 
poses, the  stench  being  so  great  that  residents  at  Jiddah 
have  assured  me  that  with  a  favourable  wind  it  reaches 
that  port,  a  distance  of  over  fifty  miles. 

After  the  Kurban  Bairam  begin  the  three  days,  namely, 
the  nth,  1 2th  and  I3th  of  the  month,  known  as  the  days 
of  drying  flesh.  The  pilgrims  spend  this  time  in  Mina 
and  have  daily  obligations  to  perform,  and  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  three  days  return  again  to  Mecca,  once  more 
to  pray  at  the  Kaaba.  This  done,  pilgrims  are  advised 
to  leave,  on  the  ground  that  any  sin  committed  on  this 
sacred  spot  is  particularly  heinous.  This  has  the  double 


MECCA,   THE   MOSLEM'S   PALESTINE    265 

advantage  of  relieving  Mecca  from  the  presence  of  such 
multitudes,  and  secondly,  having  them  scatter  before  the 
inevitable  reaction  which  follows  the  religious  excite- 
ment. 

The  inhabitants  of  Mecca  live  exclusively  on  what  the 
pilgrims  bring  them.  At  the  head  is  found  the  large 
staff  of  the  Kaaba  under  the  control  of  the  Shereef.  The 
greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  are  in  one  way  or  another 
connected  with  the  Kaaba  and  receive  salaries.  Others 
occupy  themselves  by  exploiting  the  pilgrims  in  different 
ways,  and  they  are  noted  for  their  arrogance,  considering 
themselves  a  privileged  people. 

The  city  itself  is  small,  situated  in  a  valley,  or  wady, 
which  carries  off  the  water  from  the  neighbouring  hills, 
and  Mecca  is  therefore  often  visited  by  floods. 

The  aspiration  to  perform  pilgrimages  is  to  be  found 
in  every  religion,  but  it  seems  to  me  quite  safe  to  state 
that  in  no  other  are  they  accompanied  by  such  compli- 
cated and  exhausting  rites  as  is  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca. 
From  the  moment  when  the  pilgrim  dons  the  ihram  to 
the  time  he  is  free  to  remove  it  again,  a  period  of  about  a 
month,  he  does  not  belong  to  himself.  All  this  time  he  is 
in  a  state  of  nervous  tension,  religious  excitement  on  the 
one  hand,  and  on  the  other  the  constant  fear  of  some  act 
of  omission  or  commission  that  may  annul  the  merit  of 
his  devotions.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  he  is  obliged  to 
refrain  even  from  the  act  of  scratching  himself!  He  is 
surrounded  by  thousands  of  half-frenzied  religious  fa- 
natics whose  excitement  is  contagious.  His  clothing  all 
these  days  consists  of  two  strips  of  white  cloth.  In  spite 
of  the  burning  sun,  his  head  is  uncovered  and  his  bare 
feet  must  tread  the  hot  earth.  He  is  constantly  afraid  of 
being  late,  or  crowded  back  from  reaching  some  sacred 
spot  by  the  struggling  egotistical  mass.  To  this  add  the 
most  exorbitant  prices  for  the  most  simple  necessaries  of 


266        LIFE  IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

life,  even  drinking  water;  the  absence  of  the  most  primi- 
tive sanitary  conveniences,  and  after  the  sacrifice  the  days 
spent  in  the  horrible  atmosphere  caused  by  the  decompos- 
ing of  the  offal  and  blood  of  the  thousands  of  animals 
slain.  The  absence  of  medical  assistance  increases  the 
mortality,  always  great  at  this  time. 

Interesting  statistics  are  given  of  the  sanitary  condition 
of  Mecca  during  the  Hadj  of  1907,  which  was  considered 
a  healthful  one.  This  report  was  made  out  by  Drs.  Rifat 
and  Esad,  of  the  Turkish  Sanitary  Administration,  and 
was  presented  to  the  International  Sanitary  Commission 
of  Constantinople.1  This  report  cannot  raise  any  suspicion 
of  exaggeration ;  it  would  naturally,  being  drawn  up  by 
the  Turkish  authorities,  seek  to  underestimate  the  evils 
of  pilgrimages.  From  this  report  we  see  that  in  spite 
of  its  being  a  favourable  year,  the  mortality  among  the 
pilgrims  at  Mecca  was  enormous,  from  sixty  to  one  hun- 
dred dying  each  day,  and  sometimes  more.  The  great- 
est number  of  deaths  (16.4%)  was  caused  by  pneumonia; 
then  followed  dysentery  (15.9%),  of  which  disease  no 
patients  recovered;  of  other  stomach  and  bowel  troubles 
12.3%  died.  The  unsanitary  condition  is  increased  by 
the  difficulty  of  obtaining  anything  like  proper  lodgings, 
the  absence  of  sufficient  good  water,  owing  to  all  the 
springs  being  contaminated  by  the  multitudes,  and  by 
their  being  churned  into  a  muddy  evil-tasting  fluid.  The 
water  sold  by  the  water  carriers  is  so  much  worse  that  only 
sheer  necessity  forces  the  pilgrims  to  buy  it.  Even  on 
Mount  Arafat  the  springs  of  pure  water  were  unfit  for 
use,  as  no  power  could  keep  the  pilgrims  from  performing 
their  ablutions  in  the  same  basins  and  hollows  used  for 

drinking. 
The  poor  quality  of  food  found  in  the  bazaars  is  another 

1  Rapport  sttr  le  voyage  de  retour  de  la  caravane  sacree  en  1'annee  1324 
de  1'hegire.    (1907.) 


MECCA,   THE   MOSLEM'S   PALESTINE    267 

cause  of  disease,  as  is  the  fact  of  all  these  thousands  per- 
forming their  natural  needs  by  the  roadside,  under  the 
walls,  often  close  to  the  spot  where  food  is  sold,  and  where 
swarms  of  flies  are  hovering.  The  large  percentage  of 
lung  troubles  is  easily  explained  by  the  great  contrast  be- 
tween the  heat  of  the  day  and  the  chill  of  the  nights,  and 
especially  to  pilgrims  from  India  and  the  Sudan ;  the  ex- 
posure, lightly  dressed  as  they  are,  brings  on  sickness  that 
carries  them  off  by  the  hundred. 

Aside  from  these  diseases,  the  pilgrims  naturally  bring 
to  Mecca  many  illnesses  peculiar  to  their  own  countries, 
which  often  spread,  and  thus,  from  all  these  causes  com- 
bined, Mecca  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  hotbed  of  disease 
that  is  carried  back  and  sown  along  the  caravan  routes  of 
the  returning  pilgrims. 

The  conditions  of  the  land  journey  followed  by  the 
Hadj  will  be  touched  upon  in  another  chapter.  The 
sea  voyage  is  a  comparatively  easy  and  comfortable  means 
of  travelling,  and  yet  here  we  find  that  the  mortality  is 
considerable  owing  to  the  crowding  of  the  steamers. 

I  personally  knew  of  one  shipload  returning  from  the 
Hadj  of  1907,  when  of  1,700  pilgrims  on  board,  fifteen 
died.  The  conveying  of  pilgrims  is  undertaken  by  ships 
of  various  nationalities,  who  care  more  about  getting  a 
large  number  of  passengers  than  about  the  comfort  of 
the  same.  In  Constantinople  the  International  Sanitary 
Commission  draw  up  rules  regulating  the  number  to  be 
carried  on  each  ship,  but  these  laws  are  often  evaded  and 
the  pilgrims  subjected  to  most  unhealthful  and  uncom- 
fortable crowding. 

These  ship  are  obliged  to  undergo  quarantine,  in  the 
Turkish  port  of  El  Tor  on  the  Sinai  peninsula  and  the 
Russian  port  of  Theodosia.  On  the  steamers  the  poor 
pilgrims  are  made  to  pay  a  great  deal  for  their  board, 
but  while  in  quarantine  the  prices  are  exorbitant. 


268         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

In  1906  they  were  charged  ten  cents  for  a  pound  of 
bread  in  El  Tor,  twenty-five  cents  for  meat  and  five  cents 
a  pound  for  charcoal,  which  was  quite  three  times  the 
normal  price.  The  quarantines  established  by  the  Turk- 
ish Sanitary  Administration,  though  nominally  under  the 
control  of  the  International  Council,  are  far  below  what 
they  should  be,  and  during  epidemic  years  do  more  harm 
than  good,  the  mismanagement  increasing  with  the  dis- 
tance from  the  central  organisation  in  Constantinople. 


CHAPTER  XV 
PILGRIMAGES  TO   MEDINA 

Boundary  of  Holy  Land — Tribes  of  Medina — Water  Supply — Date 
Palms — Last  Years  of  Mohammed's  Life — His  Pilgrimage  to  Mecca 
— Sermon  from  Mount  Arafat — Return  to  Medina — Rivals — Ill- 
ness— Last  Testament — Last  Attendance  at  the  Mosque — Absence  of 
Direct  Male  Heirs — Favourite  Wives — Their  Influence — Property 
Left  by  Mohammed — The  Sword  of  the  Prophet  and  its  History — 
Tomb  of  the  Prophet — Abu-Bekr,  Omar  and  Others — Muzzawir — 
Mosque  of  Kuba — Cemetery  of  El  Bakia — Other  Mosques — Forced 
Worship  at  Omar's  Tomb — Staff  of  the  Mosque — Eunuchs — Slave 
Trade — Inhabitants  of  Medina — Shereefs  and  Sayids — The  Damas- 
cus Caravan — Its  Historical  Origin — Surrie  Emini — Ceremony  of 
Start  from  Constantinople — Sacred  Camel — Mahmal — Gathering  of 
Pilgrims  in  Damascus — General  Character  of  Route — Akiam,  Sak- 
kas,  Muhafez — Stages — Sanitary  Conditions — Order  of  March — 
Tent  Pitching — Appearance  of  Camp,  Food  of  Pilgrims — Water — 
Martyrs  or  Shahudies — Caravan  During  Epidemics — Robberies  by 
Bedouins  and  their  Causes — Road  between  Mecca  and  Medina — 
Mutual  Relations  of  Bedouins — Kharbi — The  Hedjaz  Railway  and 
its  Importance. 

MEDINA  is  situated  about  130  miles  from  its  port,  Yambu, 
on  the  Red  Sea.  This  distance  is  generally  accomplished 
in  four  caravan  days,  but  on  swift  dromedaries  may  be 
done  in  less  than  half  that  time.  Here,  as  in  Mecca,  the 
land  for  three  days'  march  from  Medina,  on  every  side,  is 
considered  as  sacred  and  forbidden  under  pain  of  death 
to  all  unbelievers.  The  boundary  of  the  sacred  soil  on 
the  Yambu  route  is  Zul  Caliphah.  Being  considered  a 
sacred  city,  Medina  has  about  100  titles,  used  in  its  praise. 

269 


270         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

The  most  familiar  are  "  Mukadess,"  sacred,  "  Arz  Al- 
lah," God's  earth,  "  Beit-ul-Ressoul,"  the  house  of  the 
Ambassador  or  the  Prophet.  They  also  call  Medina  the 
Pure,  Blessed,  Beautiful,  etc.  The  city  itself  is  not  large, 
and  consists  of  three  parts,  the  fort,  the  city  and  the  sub- 
urbs. In  the  city  are  to  be  found  not  more  than  8,000 
Turks.  As  is  the  case  of  most  Eastern  towns,  the  city  itself 
is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  and  has  four  gates.  The  streets 
are  narrow  and  filthy.  The  water  supply  was  brought 
through  underground  channels  by  Solyman  the  Magnifi- 
cent; each  house,  however,  has,  in  addition,  its  own  well, 
as  water  is  reached  at  a  depth  of  not  over  twenty  feet. 
Owing  to  the  plentiful  water  supply  palm  gardens 
abound,  bearing  dates  that  are  renowned  throughout 
Arabia,  and  it  is  said  that  there  are  as  many  as  139 
varieties. 

We  must  notice,  from  the  beginning,  that  pilgrimages 
to  Medina  are  not  obligatory.  They  are  simply  merito- 
rious acts,  but  still  every  Mohommedan  considers  it  his 
duty  to  visit  the  tomb  of  the  Prophet 

The  mosque  in  which  the  grave  itself  is  found  is  called 
"  El  Nebavi."  It  stands  over  the  spot  where  Moham- 
med's celebrated  she-camel,  El  Kaswa,  lay  down  with 
him  during  the  flight  from  Mecca.  Here  he  lived  with 
his  family,  and  here  are  found  the  tombs  of  the  Prophet 
himself  and  those  nearest  to  him,  among  others,  that  of 
/  Ayesha,  his  favourite  wife.  She  is  held  by  the  Sunnites 
!  to  be  the  highest  and  purest  type  of  womanhood.  After 
V  the  death  of  the  Prophet,  it  was  through  Ayesha  that  the 
views  of  the  great  teacher  were  made  known  on  many 
subjects,  which,  at  her  dictation,  his  disciples  noted,  and 
which  were  afterwards  included  in  the  writings  of  the 
Mohammedan  theologians.  Thanks  to  Ayesha,  too,  we 
learn  much  of  the  intimate  house  life,  as,  for  instance,  her 
jealousy  of  the  other  wives,  fifteen  in  number,  and  espe- 
cially of  her  feelings  towards  one,  a  Copt,  named  Miriam. 


PILGRIMAGES   TO   MEDINA  271 

All  of  these  wives  are  buried  here,  excepting  Kadija, 
whose  tomb  is  in  Mecca.  There  is  a  tradition  that 
Ayesha  once  dreamed  that  three  standards  were  set  up 
in  their  house,  and  Mohammed  interpreted  it  as  meaning 
that  three  graves  would  be  on  that  spot,  his  own,  Abu- 
Bekr's  and  Osman's.  It  may  be  that  this  dream  is  the 
outcome  of  popular  imagination,  arising  after  the  facts 
had  taken  place,  but  the  Mohammedans  believe  it  im- 
plicitly. 

We  have  a  good  many  reliable  details  concerning  the 
last  days  of  Mohammed.  His  teachings  spread  faster 
than  perhaps  the  Prophet  himself  had  expected.  By  the 
loth  year  of  the  hegira,  or  631  A.D.,  it  had  become  firmly 
established  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  Arabian 
peninsula,  and  the  formula,  "  There  is  but  one  God  and 
Mohammed  the  ambassador  of  God,"  had  become  the 
creed  of  the  new  Moslem  faith,  and  thereby  defined  Mo- 
hammed's position.  Wishing  probably  still  further  to 
establish  his  personal  influence,  Mohammed  undertook, 
when  sixty-four  years  old,  what  proved  to  be  his  last 
journey  to  Mecca  at  the  head  of  100,000  of  his  followers. 

In  spite  of  his  age  and  the  weakness  that  was  to  lead 
him  to  the  grave,  he  fulfilled  all  the  trying  and  compli- 
cated rites  of  the  worship  at  the  Kaaba,  preached  a  pow- 
erful sermon  on  Mount  Arafat,  and  with  his  own  hand 
slaughtered  as  sacrifices  sixty-three  camels  and  liberated 
sixty-three  slaves,  one  to  represent  each  year  of  his  life. 
In  his  sermon  on  Arafaat  he  alluded  to  this  as  his  last 
visit  to  Mecca,  and  his  prophecy  came  to  pass,  for  soon 
after  his  return  to  Medina  his  health  became  so  much 
worse  that  he  took  to  his  bedj  though  even  there  he  con- 
tinued to  work,  even  going  so  far  as  to  organise  an  expedi- 
tion against  some  rivals  who  also  claimed  divine  missions 
and  offered  to  divide  their  authority  with  Mohammed. 
Feeling  that  he  was  failing,  he  ordered  himself  to  be  car- 
ried to  Ayesha's  apartments,  where  he  gave  his  last  com- 


272         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

mands,  ordering  his  body  to  be  washed  after  his  deatH 
and  laid  by  the  side  of  the  grave  that  was  to  be  dug  in 
the  same  room  where  he  lay.  He  further  requested  that 
his  body  should  be  left  for  some  time  alone  in  case  the 
angel  Gabriel  and  the  hosts  of  heaven  should  desire  to 
come  and  pray  by  it.  After  giving  these  commands,  in 
spite  of  his  extreme  weakness  Mohammed  went  to  the 
mosque  which  was  adjoining  his  room,  mounted  the 
"mimbar,"  or  pulpit,  and  addressed  the  congregation  in 
the  following  words:  "O  Mussulmans,  if  in  my  life 
I  have  struck  any  man,  here  is  my  back,  let  him  smite  me; 
if  I  have  injured  any  one,  the  way  of  the  injured  is  to  re- 
turn the  injury;  if  I  have  taken  from  any  man  his  prop- 
erty, let  him  fearlessly  claim  it,  not  dreading  my  venge- 


ance." 


When,  at  the  close  of  his  address,  someone  spoke  up 
claiming  three  drachmas,  Mohammed  returned  the 
money,  with  the  words,  "  Better  shame  in  this  world  than 
in  the  world  to  come." 

A  few  days  later,  gathering  his  last  forces  he  again 
went  to  the  mosque,  and  in  a  clear  voice  entreated  his 
hearers  to  follow  the  teachings  of  the  Koran  as  an  infalli- 
ble book,  the  star  to  guide  the  true  believer  in  all  the 
temptations  that  were  in  store  for  the  Mohammedan 
world.  He  then  retired  to  his  room,  and  in  a  few  hours, 
on  the  8th  of  June,  632  A.D.,  he  died  with  his  head  on 
Ayesha^s  knee. 

Mohammed  died  without  appointing  a  successor.  Al- 
though he  had  fifteen  wives,  only  two  of  them  bore  him 
children :  Kadija,  his  first  wife,  a  widow  in  whose  employ 
he  had  been  before  his  marriage,  had  four  sons  and  four 
daughters;  the  Copt,  Miriam,  also  had  one  son;  but  all 
these  boys  died  before  their  father.  Nine  wives  sur- 
vived the  Prophet,  and  they  all  remained  widows,  as  the 
Prophet  in  one  of  the  chapters  of  the  Koran  forbade 


PILGRIMAGES  TO   MEDINA  273 

"believers"  to  marry  them.  The  explanation  of  Mo- 
hammed's possessing  fifteen  wives,  in  contradiction  to  his 
limiting  his  followers  to  four  wives^  is  explained  by  the 
Sunnites  as  an  exception  due  to  the  exalted  state  of  the 
Prophet.  The  Shiites  follow  Mohammed's  example  and 
permit,  under  one  form  or  another,  an  unlimited  number. 

Of  the  wives  of  Mohammed,  the  Moslems  hold  as  the 
most  important  the  following:  Kadija,  his  first  wife,  who 
was  much  older  than  the  Prophet;  Ayesha,  his  best  loved 
wife;  Hafza,  the  daughter  of  Omar-Umm  Habiba;  Safia, 
a  Jewess ;  and  Zeinab. 

The  first  confidant  of  the  Prophet's  revelations  was 
his  wife  Kadija,  to  whom  he  owed  much,  but  afterwards 
rather  neglected  for  Ayesha.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
Mohammed  learned  much  of  the  other  religions  of  his 
age  during  his  journeys  while  in  the  employ  of  Kadija, 
but  that  his  wives  also  added  to  his  knowledge  one  cannot 
doubt,  for  one  of  them  was  a  Copt  and  another  a  Jewess. 

Although  Mohammed  always  reserved  for  himself  one 
fifth  of  all  the  war  spoils,  on  his  death  his  property  con- 
sisted only  of  22  horses,  2  asses,  Ufar  and  Yafur,  5  mules, 
among  which  was  a  white  one  called  Dul-Dul,  24  camels, 
including  the  celebrated  El  Kaswa,  100  sheep,  arms,  a 
mantle,  2  banners  and  a  green  turban.  The  absence  of 
further  wealth  is  explained  partly  by  the  Prophet's  known 
generosity  to  the  poor,  and  partly  to  the  expenses  of  so 
numerous  a  harem. 

Over  the  tomb  of  the  Prophet  is  built  a  mosque  bearing 
the  same  name  as  the  principal  mosque  of  Mecca, "  Med- 
jid-esh-Shereef,"  which  it  resembles  also  in  its  architect- 
ure. The  Medina  mosque  was  built  by  the  Caliph  Walid 
I.  in  707  of  our  era.  In  order  to  make  room  for  this 
mosque  the  caliph  ordered  all  the  surrounding  houses  to 
be  removed,  among  them  the  house  of  Ayesha,  then  partly 
in  ruins.  This  act  created  a  good  deal  of  discontent  in 


274         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

Medina,  and  to  propitiate  those  whose  houses  haol  been 
destroyed,  the  caliph  made  a  pilgrimage  in  person  the 
following  year  to  the  Prophet's  tomb,  which  he  covered 
with  a  precious  covering.  This  was  the  origin  of  the 
custom  still  continued,  and  the  covering  received  the 
name  of  "  astaresh-Shereef,"  "  the  sacred  covering,"  and 
it  is  generally  sewn  in  the  sultan's  harem.  In  former 
times  this  covering  was  only  changed  at  the  beginning 
of  each  reign,  and  later  on  in  every  seven  years.  The  old 
coverings  are  used  for  the  tombs  of  sultans  and  imperial 
princes.  The  grave  itself  is  all  hung  about  and  concealed 
by  hangings  of  great  price,  as  the  popular  belief  is  that 
no  one  could  look  at  it  without  losing  his  eyesight.  The 
same  tradition  states  that  Mohammed  lies  in  the  grave  on 
his  right  side,  facing  Mecca,  and  with  his  cheek  resting 
on  the  palm  of  his  right  hand.  Behind  the  tomb  and 
facing  it,  lie  Abu-Bekr,  then  Omar,  and  next  an  empty 
grave  destined  for  Jesus  Christ.  According  to  the  Mos- 
lem teaching,  another  was  crucified  in  the  place  of  Christ, 
and  this  grave  awaits  his  second  coming.  In  the  mosque, 
but  at  one  side,  are  the  tombs  of  Ayesha  and  Fatima,  the 
daughter  of  the  Prophet. 

In  visiting  these  places  there  are  none  of  the  ceremo- 
nies observed  in  Mecca.  Even  kneeling  at  the  tombs  is 
considered  to  be  a  sin,  as  during  his  lifetime  Mohammed 
repeatedly  expressed  the  desire  that  his  remains  should 
receive  no  honour  nor  worship,  which  belongs  to  God 
alone.  The  pilgrims  who  visit  Medina,  therefore,  simply 
recite  prayers  or  supplications  composed  for  the  various 
stations  appointed.  As  the  order  of  "  ziarat,"  or  visita- 
tion of  the  various  sacred  spots,  is  strictly  laid  down,  pil- 
grims are  obliged  to  have  guides,  called  muzzawir,  by 
whom  the  pilgrim  is  known  as  "  zair.';  The  prayers  said 
at  each  station  are  rather  invocations,  and  as  they  are  all 
similar,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  cite  the  one  repeated  at 


PILGRIMAGES  TO   MEDINA  275 

Fatima's  tomb.  "  Peace  be  with  thee,  daughter  of  the 
messenger  of  Allah!  Peace  be  with  the  daughter  of  the 
Prophet  of  Allah !  Peace  be  with  the  daughter  of  Mus- 
tafa ['Chosen,'  one  of  the  titles  of  Mohammed].  Peace 
with  thee,  thou  mother  of  the  Shurafa!  Peace  with  thee, 
O  lady  amongst  women!  Peace  with  thee,  O  fifth  of  the 
Ahl-el-Kisa!  Peace  with  thee,  O  spouse  of  our  lord  Ali! 
Peace  be  with  thee,  O  mother  of  Hassan  and  Hussein,  the 
two  moons  of  light,  the  two  pearls,  the  two  princes  of  the 
youths  of  heaven  and  gladness  of  the  eyes  of  true  believ- 
ers ! "  and  so  on. 

Aside  from  the  burial  places  of  those  already  men- 
tioned, there  are  about  a  hundred  other  stations  or  places 
of  "  ziarat "  in  and  about  Medina,  venerated  for  some 
event  celebrated  by  el  Islam  and  to  which  the  pilgrims 
go  with  their  guides.  Among  such  places  the  mosque  of 
Kuba  is  worth  mentioning,  situated  some  three  miles  to 
the  southeast  of  Medina  in  a  valley  of  the  same  name. 
This  mosque  was  founded  by  Mohammed,  who  personally 
laid  the  first  stone  on  ground  owned  by  one  Abu  Ayub, 
whose  descendants  still  claim  the  privilege  of  keeping 
the  keys. 

The  cemetery  of  El  Bakia  is  also  of  interest.  Here 
are  buried,  according  to  tradition,  100,000  followers  of 
the  Prophet.  On  the  last  day  it  is  believed  that  Moham- 
med will  rise  first  and  then  Abraham  and  Omar,  after 
whom  all  those  who  are  buried  at  El  Bakia.  Whatever 
tombstones  there  were  in  this  cemetery  were  destroyed 
by  the  Wahabees  during  the  time  of  their  occupation  of 
Mecca.  Here,  too,  is  repeated  a  prayer  or  benediction, 
"Peace  be  with  ye,  O  people  of  El  Bakia!  Peace  be 
with  ye,  O,  admitted  to  the  presence  of  the  Most  High!" 

The  mosques  in  which  are  buried  Hussein,  the  son  of 
Ali,  Imam  Zein-el-Abdeen,  Mohammed-el-Bakir  and 
Imam  Djafar,  the  grandson  and  great-grandsons  of  the 


276 

Prophet,  are  particularly  venerated  by  the  Shiites,  who, 
on  visiting  them,  give  full  vent  to  their  religious  emo- 
tions, weeping  and  wailing.  Their  sentiments  are  quite 
different  when  visiting  the  graves  of  Abu-Bekr  and  in 
particular  that  of  Omar,  the  anniversary  of  whose  death, 
as  mentioned  in  another  chapter,  is  celebrated  with  joy 
in  Persia  even  at  the  present  time,  and  whom  the  Shiites 
regard  as  responsible  for  all  the  misfortunes  that  came 
to  the  family  of  Ali. 

The  Sunnites  watch  the  Shiites  narrowly  as  they  reach 
this  station,  and  being  in  the  minority  in  a  hostile  land, 
the  poor  Shiites  are  forced  to  repeat  the  prescribed  form- 
ula, with  sometimes  ill-concealed  hatred  in  their  hearts, 
but  repeat  the  prayers  they  must,  or  risk  being  instantly 
put  to  death.  Some,  however,  in  doing  so,  console  them- 
selves by  inaudibly  changing  the  name  of  Omar  into 
"Humar,"  "ass!" 

A  spring  where  Mohammed  quenched  his  thirst  and  a 
cave  where  he  hid  are  among  the  many  other  places  of 
"  ziarat." 

The  staff  of  officers  and  servants  in  the  mosques  of  Me- 
dina is  very  great;  the  chief  control  being  in  the  hands  of 
eunuchs,  who  are  preferred  on  the  following  grounds: 
i.  Having  no  family  ties  they  are  more  apt  to  give  all 
their  attention  to  the  care  of  the  sacred  buildings.  2. 
As  they  have  to  come  in  contact  with  women  unknown  to 
them.  3.  The  holy  places  are  sacred,  cut  off,  "  harems," 
therefore  eunuchs  are  most  appropriate  as  guardians.  In 
olden  times  the  governor  of  Medina  was  at  the  same  time 
guardian  of  the  mosque  and  bore  the  title  of  "  Sheikhul- 
Harem,"  and  was  appointed  from  the  chief  eunuchs,  or 
"  Kizler  Aghassi,"  of  the  sultans,  whose  ambition  it  was 
to  get  this  post  as  the  crowning  of  their  difficult  and 
sometimes  dangerous  career. 

In  passing  I  shall  say  a  few  words  about  the  institution 


PILGRIMAGES  TO   MEDINA  277 

of  eunuchs  and  slaves,  without  which  the  most  superficial 
study  of  Moslem  life  would  be  incomplete. 

The  custom  of  having  eunuch  attendants  is  of  very  an- 
cient date.  Babylonian  inscriptions  tell  of  the  office  of 
"  Papsares,"  minister  in  the  court,  who  also  had  charge  of 
the  portion  of  the  palace  occupied  by  the  women.  This 
was  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  court  functions  and 
was  always  performed  by  the  "  Great  Eunuch." 

Mohammed,  permitting  polygamy  and  advocating  the 
seclusion  of  women,  naturally  opened  the  way  to  the  fur- 
ther establishment  of  this  institution,  which,  to  the  dis- 
grace of  the  twentieth  century,  be  it  said,  still  continues. 

Formerly  the  eunuchs  were  of  those  taken  captive  in 
wars,  but  later  on  African  slaves  furnished  the  majority 
of  this  class,  and  a  lucrative  trade  sprang  up  of  slaves, 
both  male  and  female.  As  late  as  fifty  years  ago  there 
was  no  important  Mohammedan  city  without  its  slave 
market.  Nor  were  Negroes  the  only  ones  sold  here.  The 
most  prized  were  Circassian  and  Georgian  girls  brought 
from  the  Caucasus.  At  that  time  every  rich  Mohamme- 
dan aspired  to  have  Circassians  in  his  harem,  which  ac- 
counts for  the  frequency  of  the  Caucasian  type  found 
among  Turks.  Palgrave,  who  visited  Arabia  in  the  fifties 
of  the  past  century,  writes  that  in  spite  of  the  treaty  be- 
tween England  and  the  Sultan  of  Muscat  abolishing  the 
slave  trade,  6,000  slaves  were  yearly  brought  to  the  ports 
of  Muscat,  Jiddah  and  S'uez.  Palgrave  gives  the  prices 
they  brought  as  £9  for  a  healthy  boy  and  a  little 
more  for  a  girl.  A  girl  of  above  nine  years  was 
sold  for  £22.  Abyssinians  brought  the  best  price 
among  the  black  slaves,  but  the  Circassians  were  the  most 
prized;  even  at  that  date  a  girl  brought  from  £90  to 
£350.  Most  of  these  became  the  favourites  of  sultans, 
or  men  of  rank,  and  eventually  succeeded  in  getting  their 
fathers  or  brothers  into  important  positions,  which  led  to 


278         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

so  many  Circassians  being  found  in  military  and  adminis- 
trative posts. 

.  In  the  last  half  of  the  past  century  a  convention  was 
drawn  up  abolishing  the  slave  trade,  which  was  a  blow  to 
this  disgraceful  traffic,  but  did  not  quite  crush  it,  the 
difference  being  that  it  was  carried  on  secretly.  When 
we  were  in  Bagdad,  by  means  of  certain  agents  slaves  of 
both  sexes  could  be  easily  bought,  but  at  prices  far  higher 
than  in  the  time  of  Palgrave. 

Pilgrims  possessing  sufficient  means  seldom  return  from 
Mecca  without  adding  to  their  household  one  or  more 
slaves  bought  there,  and  so  the  supply  of  eunuchs,  which 
are  found  in  all  wealthy  Mohammedan  houses,  is  in  this 
way  maintained. 

Moslems  justify  slavery  by  maintaining  that  the  slaves 
are  well  treated  by  them.  The  Koran  preaches  kindness 
towards  slaves,  and  cases  of  cruelty  to  slaves  kept  by  Mos- 
lems are  certainly  the  great  exception. 

I  personally  had  the  good  fortune  while  in  Bagdad  to 
be  able  to  set  three  slaves  free,  and  this  was  obtained 
rather  by  personal  relations  with  the  authorities  than  by 
basing  my  demands  on  the  convention.  To  the  honour 
of  the  young  Constitutional  Government  I  must  note  that 
one  of  the  first  acts  of  Parliament  was  the  abolition  of 
slavery  throughout  the  Turkish  Empire.  Sq  officially, 
at  least,  the  right  stand  is  taken ;  time  will  show  how  ef- 
fectually. 

The  need  of  eunuchs  is  so  closely  connected  with  Mo- 
hammedan life  and  customs,  that  there  is  little  hope  of 
this  outrageous  practice  being  stopped  until  public  opin- 
ion becomes  sufficiently  raised  to  understand  the  depths  of 
this  depravity. 

But  to  return  to  the  Medina  mosque.  The  chief  guard- 
ian is  a  pasha  sent  from  Constantinople,  but  his  aides, 
secretaries,  servants  and  eunuchs  number  over  a  hundred. 


PILGRIMAGES  TO   MEDINA  279 

The  lower  class  of  attendants  is  divided  into  three  orders: 
first,  porters;  secondly,  eunuchs,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
cleanse  the  inside  of  the  shrine  itself ;  and  thirdly,  water 
carriers.  Then  there  is  of  course  a  large  number  of  guides 
and  others,  all  from  the  local  inhabitants,  and  claim- 
ing the  right  of  keeping  the  privilege  of  these  services  on 
the  following  grounds.  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Medina  consists  of  descendants  of  Mohammed  and  of 
his  apostles.  The  descendants  of  the  Prophet  who  trace 
their  genealogy  from  Hassan  are  called  by  the  Turks  She- 
reefs,  and  these,  arguing  the  sanctity  of  their  lineage, 
claim  the  right  of  occupying  all  posts  in  any  way  con- 
nected with  the  worship  of  their  great  ancestor.  These 
Shereefs  not  only  are  free  from  all  taxes  in  Medina,  but 
occupy  positions  about  the  shrine,  drawing  pay  partly 
from  the  sultan  and  partly  from  the  revenue  of  the 
mosque. 

The  funds  for  the  sacred  cities  of  Mecca  and  Medina 
are  received  through  a  special  agent  living  in  Constanti- 
nople and  known  as  the  "  Vekil-ul-Haramein,"  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  sacred  places.  The  Shereefs  as  a  whole 
are  called  "  Evladi  paigambar,"  or  children .  of  the 
Prophet.  An  analogical  position  to  that  of  the  Shereefs 
is  occupied  in  Persia  by  the  Sayids,  where  they,  too,  have 
the  general  name  of  "  Evladi  paigambar,"  and  as  indi- 
viduals that  of  Sayid.  In  Persia,  as  well  as  in  India,  the 
term  Shereef  denotes  offspring  of  the  daughter  of  a  Sayid 
married  with  a  man  not  of  the  same  extraction. 

The  remainder  of  the  population  of  Medina,  the  de- 
scendants of  the  apostles  of  Mohammed,  are  divided  into 
four  tribes:  i.  Beit-el-Ansar,  holding  the  keys  of  the 
mosque  of  Kuba.  2.  Beit- Abu  Dfud,  who  serve  as  imams 
and  muezzins  in  the  mosques.  3.  Beit-esh-Shaab,  occu- 
pying minor  posts  in  the  mosques.  4.  Beit-el-Karrash, 
the  majority  of  whom  are  shopkeepers.  There  are  also 


280 

some  Turks,  Kurds,  Syrians,  Indians,  Caucasians,  Tartars, 
Bukhariotes,  Persians  and  Afghans  settled  here,  in  order 
to  devote  themelves  to  religious  exercises  and  die  on  holy; 
ground. 

Each  year  what  is  known  as  the  sacred  caravan  is  sent 
to  Mecca  through  Damascus  and  Medina,  carrying  the 
covering  of  the  Kaaba  and  other  rich  gifts  from  the  sul- 
tan, who,  not  making  a  pilgrimage  himself,  sends  instead 
by  special  officers  these  gifts.  The  sending  of  this  cara- 
van is  closely  connected  with  Turkish  history,  and  is  one 
of  the  sultan's  prerogatives  as  caliph  of  the  Moslem 
world. 

After  the  establishment  of  Mohammedanism  in  Egypt 
the  reigning  caliph,  Omar  Ben  Ketaba,  sent  the  first 
sacred  caravan  from  there,  and  this  custom  is  continued, 
the  Egyptian  caravan  being  distinguished  from  the  Da- 
mascus caravan,  and  is  known  as  the  "  Mahmal  Missiri." 

Since  the  reign  of  Selim  I.  the  Turkish  sultans  have 
also  sent  an  annual  caravan  under  the  leadership  of  the 
"  Surrei  Emini,"  that  starts  with  great  pomp  from  Con- 
stantinople. It  is  known,  however,  as  the  Damascus  car- 
avan, for  it  is  there  that  the  pilgrims  congregate,  often  to 
the  number  of  100,000,  and  from  which  spot  the  caravan  as 
such  begins  its  weary  desert  march.  Since  the  opening 
of  the  Suez  Canal  the  Damascus  caravan  has  lost  much  of 
its  former  significance  and  it  is  not  so  numerous,  number- 
ing not  over  10,000  to  15,000,  as  the  sea  route  is  far  easier 
and  less  expensive. 

The  ceremony  of  leaving  Constantinople  is  on  the  I2th 
of  the  lunar  month  of  Redjeb,  or  five  months  before  the 
feast  of  Kurban  Bairam.  The  actual  handing  over  of  the 
gifts  of  the  sultan  to  those  who  are  to  carry  them  to 
Mecca  is  performed  at  the  palace.  The  covering  des- 
tined for  the  Kaaba  is  placed  on  a  richly  caparisoned 
camel,  and  the  other  gifts  on  similarly  decorated  mules. 


From  Constantinople  the  caravan  crosses  the  Bospho- 
rus  to  Scutari,  on  the  Asiatic  shore,  where  the  gifts  of  His 
Majesty  are  placed  on  other  camels  and  mules,  the  origi- 
nal animals  with  their  trappings  returning  to  Con- 
stantinople. The  covering  of  the  Kaaba  is  placed  in  a 
mahmal  or  sort  of  litter  attached  to  the  camel's  saddle, 
such  as  the  Prophet  himself  used  to  travel  in,  and  from 
which  on  his  camel's  back,  as  from  a  raised  pulpit,  many 
of  his  most  fiery  sermons  were  delivered.  The  mahmal 
camels  kept  in  Constantinople  are  said  to  be  the  de- 
scendants of  the  Prophet's  own  camel,  and  never  accom- 
pany the  caravan  for  fear  of  accident,  but  are  kept  in  the 
imperial  stables,  and  great  attention  is  paid  to  preserving 
the  purity  of  the  breed.  The  camels  bearing  the  mah- 
mal are  therefore  called  manfil  or  mahmal,  the  latter 
meaning  a  seat  or  throne,  and  the  former,  a  beast  of  bur- 
den. The  long  caravan  route  is  made  on  camels  from 
Damascus,  which  are  also  by  tradition  descended  from 
one  belonging  to  the  Prophet. 

At  the  time  of  the  starting  of  the  sacred  caravan  the 
usually  quiet  city  of  Damascus  becomes  animated.  Pil- 
grims flock  here  from  every  quarter  of  El  Islam ;  owners 
of  mules  and  camels  drive  them  Here  in  great  numbers; 
saddle  shops  carry  on  a  lively  trade  in  saddles  and  fixings 
for  the  march;  the  saddles  bought  being  adjusted  to  the 
camels'  backs,  and  seldom,  if  ever,  removed  on  the  way. 
jWater  skins,  too,  are  bought,  and  provisions  of  dried  meat 
and  other  edibles  supplied. 

The  gathering  point  for  the  caravan  is  the  lake  of  Muz- 
zareb,  two  days'  march  from  the  city  of  Damascus,  twenty- 
eight  marches  from  Medina  and  forty-two  from  Mecca. 
This  distance  is  over  an  almost  waterless  tract  of  land, 
there  being  but  twelve  wells  between  Damascus  and  Me- 
dina. To  protect  these  precious  wells  from  hostile  no- 
mads, small  forts  were  constructed  by  the  Turks  with  a 


282         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

garrison  of  ten  to  twelve  on  paper,  but  in  fact  six  to  seven 
soldiers  are  to  be  found  in  each  "  kala." 

On  account  of  the  scarcity  of  water  the  caravan  is 
obliged  to  make  forced  marches  of  not  less  than  two  hours 
a  day,  and  there  are  some  days  on  which  eighteen  to  twenty 
hours  have  to  be  made.  The  difficulty  of  the  road  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  season  of  the  year  in  which  the 
Hadj  is  made.  In  the  dry  season  the  dangers  are  in- 
creased, as  some  of  the  wells  then  go  dry.  Before  the 
starting  of  the  caravan  the  governor  of  Damascus  in- 
forms himself  as  to  the  quantity  of  water  to  be  depended 
upon,  and  the  length  of  the  marches  is  arranged  according 
to  the  result  of  these  inquiries.  Occasionally  it  is  found 
necessary  to  send  as  many  as  1,500  water  skins  to  meet  the 
caravan  at  certain  stages.  The  difficulties  attending  the 
march  of  10,000  to  13,000  people  under  such  circum- 
stances are  easily  understood,  as  well  as  the  necessity  of 
strict  order  and  discipline  in  the  caravan. 

As  already  stated,  the  camels  are  furnished  by  special 
men  in  Damascus,  some  contractors  presenting  as  many 
as  200  to  300  beasts.  These  are  given  in  charge  of  akiam, 
or  camel  men,  who  lead  the  animals  and  in  camp  serve 
the  pilgrims  for  a  certain  additional  sum.  Aside  from 
these  men  are  grooms  who  care  for  the  camels,  and 
sakkas  or  water  carriers  who  supply  the  pilgrims  with 
water,  also  at  a  given  price.  There  are  others  whose  duty 
is  the  pitching  of  tents  and  packing  up  the  same  in  the 
morning  ready  for  loading.  The  tents  are  of  all  varieties, 
from  the  simple  umbrella-shaped  ones  with  one  pole  and 
sides  reaching  to  the  ground,  to  the  complicated  richly 
embroidered  tents  of  the  opulent  that  are  divided  into 
rooms.  The  tent  pitchers  become  very  adept  in  their 
work,  and  in  an  incredibly  short  time  they  pitch  or  strike 
a  camp.  They  load  the  tents  onto  the  camels  and  start  off 
before  the  caravan  proper,  pressing  on  in  order  to  reach 


PILGRIMAGES   TO   MEDINA  283 

the  halting  place  in  time  to  have  the  tents  up  before  the 
arrival  of  the  main  body.  The  order  of  the  camp  is  the 
same  during  the  entire  journey,  so  that  the  pilgrims  ar- 
riving in  the  camp  have  no  trouble  in  finding  their  own 
quarters.  The  tents  belong  to  the  owners  of  the  camels 
and  are  hired  with  them. 

The  halting  place  is  chosen  by  the  chief  leader  of  the 
caravan,  or  "  muhafez,"  who  gives  his  instructions  to  his 
aides,  they  to  the  camel  men,  who  in  turn  instruct  those 
under  them.  Throughout  the  march  the  muhafez  has 
unlimited  power  of  control,  and  of  deciding  all  questions 
connected  with  the  well-being  of  the  caravan,  as  well  as 
acting  as  judge  in  cases  of  differences. 

To  protect  the  caravan  from  the  Bedouins  who  con- 
stantly hover  in  its  vicinity  is  a  strong  body  of  soldiers 
with  one  or  two  mountain  guns  carried  on  camels  or  mules. 

Each  morning  two  hours  before  the  start  a  cannon  is 
fired  as  a  signal  for  breaking  the  camp.  The  second  sig- 
nal is  for  the  move,  and  it  is  done  in  such  order  that  all 
the  camels  of  each  owner  go  together.  In  the  front  of 
the  caravan  are  the  tent  pitchers  with  the  tents;  they  are 
followed  by  the  water  carriers  with  their  camels  loaded 
with  water  skins;  then  an  armed  band  of  Bedouins  hired 
to  protect  the  caravan  from  their  hostile  countrymen; 
then  comes  the  advance  guard  of  the  caravan  itself,  con- 
sisting of  fifty  cavalry  men  mounted  on  mules  riding  in 
double  rows;  they  are  followed  by  two  guns,  ammu- 
nition, and  the  baggage  of  the  leader  of  the  cara- 
van and  other  official  persons.  The  pilgrims  come 
next,  always  in  the  same  order  and  in  groups  under 
the  leadership  of  the  camel-owners.  In  the  middle  of 
the  caravan  is  the  mahmal  in  which  is  the  covering 
of  the  Kaaba.  The  caravan  marches  in  two  lines,  and 
often  strings  out  to  a  length  of  some  six  miles. 
Some  three  or  four  miles  in  the  rear  of  the  caravan  is  a 


284         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

body  of  police  two  hundred  strong,  mounted  on  camels, 
to  pick  up  stragglers.  On  arriving  at  the  halting  place 
the  camp  is  formed  in  perfect  order.  In  the  centre  is  the 
tent  of  the  Surrie  Emini,  on  the  right  is  that  of  the  leader 
of  the  caravan,  and  on  the  left  is  the  commander  of  the 
military  escort  and  those  of  other  officials.  The  tents  of 
pilgrims  from  Mesopotamia  and  Irak  are  on  the  south 
side  of  the  camp,  while  the  Persians  are  on  the  north. 
The  military  escort  surrounds  the  camp  and  a  sentinel 
is  placed  every  sixty  paces.  When  the  camp  is  settled  it 
presents  the  appearance  of  a  town,  with  streets,  cafes  and 
bazaars  where  provisions  may  be  bought,  at  very  high 
prices,  to  be  sure,  and  of  poor  quality,  to  boot. 

About  sunset  two  guns  are  fired,  after  which  no  one  is 
allowed  to  pass  in  or  out  of  the  camp,  and  the  sentries  see 
that  this  rule  is  carried  out. 

The  life  of  the  camp  is  by  this  time  in  full  swing.  The 
cafes  and  bazaars  are  crowded,  grooms  busily  clean  and 
attend  to  the  horses,  the  servants  of  the  richer  pilgrims 
set  to  work  to  prepare  the  inevitable  pilaw,  desert  Arabs 
sell  milk  and  cheese,  and  butchers'  shops  offer  meat  at  an 
exorbitant  rate.  The  crowd  is  made  up  of  the  most 
varied  costumes  and  types,  speaking  in  many  tongues  and 
representing  as  many  nationalities,  but  the  common  tie 
is  the  same.  When  the  hour  of  prayer  approaches  every 
face  is  turned  towards  Mecca,  and  in  unison  the  great 
multitude  prostrates  itself  in  prayer. 

In  spite  of  the  order  observed  in  the  ways  described, 
no  sanitary  measures  are  adopted,  and  even  after  one  night 
the  ground  becomes  infested  with  filth  and  the  air  pol- 
luted, which  adds  to  the  danger  in  case  of  epidemics. 
The  health  of  the  Hadj  is  also  affected  by  the  food  eaten 
during  the  long  and  fatiguing  journey.  A  large  majority 
exist  on  what  they  take  with  them  from  Damascus,  dried 
meat,  cheese  and  dried  bread.  As  to  water,  the  case  is 


PILGRIMAGES  TO   MEDINA  285 

more  serious  still.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  water 
is  not  to  be  had  at  every  halting  place  and  that  a  supply 
sometimes  for  two  or  three  days  has  to  be  carried.  The 
water  carriers  fill  all  the  skins  taken  with  them  at  Damas- 
cus, loading  four  or  eight  on  each  camel,  according  to 
their  size.  The  full  skins  weigh  usually  from  400  to 
480  pounds. 

As  the  water  is  drawn  from  wells  each  sakka  has  a  long 
rope  and  leathern  bucket,  also  a  three-legged  contrivance 
over  which  he  fixes  a  sort  of  pulley  for  drawing  the  water. 
As  soon  as  a  well  is  reached  the  sakkas  surround  it,  quickly 
filling  their  skins,  and  always  in  prescribed  order,  first  the 
carriers  of  the  Surrie  Emini,  then  the  leader  of  the  cara- 
van, the  officers  and  men  of  the  guard,  and  then  the  water 
carriers  of  the  pilgrims  have  their  turn.  The  water  has 
to  be  so  economically  given  out  that  it  is  only  used  for 
drinking  and  cooking,  none  for  washing  purposes,  the 
poor  pilgrims  being  deprived  during  the  dry  season  of  a 
wash  throughout  the  journey.  The  ablutions  prescribed 
before  prayer  are  performed  with  sand,  as  is  permitted 
by  the  Koran.  Such  ablutions  are  termed  "  teyammun." 
The  water  in  some  of  the  wells  is  bitterish  to  the  taste, 
in  others  brackish  and  often  muddy. 

After  the  water  carriers  have  filled  their  skins  the 
camels  are  led  up  to  the  wells  to  drink,  the  spilled  water 
forming  liquid  mud  which  runs  back  into  the  wells,  mak- 
ing the  water  so  troubled  that  it  takes  days  to  settle. 

All  these  hardships  taken  together  make  the  Hadj 
journey  even  under  the  best  conditions  one  of  great  hard- 
ship, and  on  an  average  the  caravan  has  one  death  per  day. 
We  must  remember  that  among  the  pilgrims  are  numbers 
who  go  on  foot,  many  of  whom  are  unable  to  endure  the 
long  marches  of  eighteen  to  twenty  hours,  especially  as 
these  poorer  pilgrims  are  generally  half  starved.  When 
they  become  too  exhausted  to  continue  they  leave  the  ranks 


and  lie  down  by  the  roadside  to  die.  No  attention  is  paid 
to  them;  each  one  is  thinking  of  himself  and  trying  to 
keep  his  own  place  in  the  caravan.  Those  who  thus  fall  by 
the  way  are  called  "  shahud,"  or  martyrs,  and  according 
to  popular  belief  go  direct  to  Paradise.  Those  to  whom 
death  does  not  come  at  once  are  often  killed  for  their  poor 
rags  by  the  Bedouins,  who  like  vultures  hover  about  the 
rear  of  the  caravan.  More  unfortunate  ones  who  linger 
on  are  surrounded  by  jackals,  hyenas  and  birds  of  prey. 
There  are  litters  to  be  hired  for  about  $5.00  a  day  for 
those  who  are  too  weak  to  ride  or  walk,  but  these  are  of 
course  possible  only  for  the  rich  pilgrim.  During  epi- 
demics the  Hadj  is  a  fearful  sight.  The  English  traveller 
Doughty  in  his  wonderful  book,  "  Arabia  Deserta,"  tells 
of  joining  the  Damascus  caravan  during  a  cholera  year. 
He  says  that  they  lost  as  many  as  a  hundred  a  day.  The 
dead  were  carried  off  to  one  side,  shallow  graves  scooped 
out  with  a  stick  and  sand  thrown  over  the  corpses.  One 
such,  who  was  buried  as  dead  in  a  very  shallow  grave  of 
warm  sand,  came  to  life  and,  crawling  out,  managed  to 
drag  himself  to  some  Arab  tents,  and  when  strong  enough 
drifted  from  one  encampment  to  another,  and  only  after 
two  years  turned  up  in  Damascus,  to  the  astonishment  of 
all  his  family,  who  had  already  divided  up  his  property, 
and  took  a  good  deal  of  convincing  to  accept  him  as  alive 
and  the  owner  of  his  'own  estate ! 

Nowhere  is  more  heartless  selfishness  found  than  on  the 
Hadj.  The  very  struggle  for  existence  that  the  entire 
journey  represents  makes  each  one  look  out  for  himself 
and  pay  no  attention  to  the  suffering  of  others,  and 
this  callousness  leaves  its  impress  for  life  on  the  char- 
acter. 

The  Syrian  proverb  is  very  apt  in  illustrating  this :  "Be- 
ware of  your  neighbour  if  he  is  a  Hadji.  If  he  has  twice 
performed  the  Hadj,  lock  your  door;  if  he  has  made  it 


PILGRIMAGES  TO   MEDINA  287 

three  times,  brick  up  your  door  and  make  another  on  the 
opposite  side  of  your  house." 

Aside  from  all  these  other  miseries  the  Had]  caravans 
are  often  subjected  to  robberies.  The  Turkish  Govern- 
ment employs  two  measures  with  more  or  less  success 
against  this  evil.  First  in  sending  an  armed  escort,  and 
secondly  in  sending  gifts  to  the  sheikhs  of  the  Hedjaz  and 
Yemen,  hiring  camels  from  them  and  also  in  employing 
their  men  as  hired  escorts  for  the  caravan.  In  spite  of 
these  means  the  Bedouins  occasionally  succeed  in  robbing 
the  caravan,  and  sometimes  in  holding  it  up  for  a  consider- 
able time,  until  a  ransom  is  sent.  The  military  escort  is 
unable  to  cope  with  a  united  force  of  Bedouins,  as  the 
caravan  is  strung  out  to  so  great  a  length,  and  if  the  attack 
be  at  night  the  panic  is  generally  so  great  that  the  Bed- 
ouins can  easily  take  advantage  of  the  confusion  and  cut 
off  a  part  of  the  caravan.  Not  farther  back  than  the 
nineties  of  the  past  century  the  following  incident  oc- 
curred. The  military  escort  succeeded  during  an  attack 
in  gathering  the  pilgrims  in  the  centre  and  beating  off 
the  Bedouins.  The  latter,  however,  surrounded  the  whole 
caravan,  laying  siege  to  it,  as  it  were.  The  caravan  held 
out  for  two  months,  when  reinforcements  came,  but  not 
before  many  of  the  soldiers  and  pilgrims  had  succumbed 
for  want  of  water  and  food. 

The  most  dangerous  portion  of  the  entire  journey  is 
the  part  between  Medina  and  Mecca,  where  there  is  the 
choice  between  three  routes :  the  first,  called  the  "  Darb- 
esh-Sharkie,"  eastern  route,  runs  almost  parallel  to  the 
Red  Sea  and  at  a  distance  from  it  of  from  some  one  hun- 
dred to  one  hundred  and  forty  miles.  This  is  the  shortest, 
but  it  is  extremely  difficult  for  beasts  of  burden  and  there- 
fore only  Bedouins  and  jjght  caravans  can  profit  by  it. 
The  second  route,  farther  inland,  called  "  Darb-es-Sul- 
tan,"  was  the  route  followed  by  the  sacred  caravan  up  to 


288         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

about  fifteen  years  ago,  when  a  third  road  was  chosen,  the 
"  Darb-ul-feri,"  which  branches  off  from  the  sultan's 
road,  making  a  shorter  cut.  But  all  these  roads  are  in- 
fested with  Bedouin  robbers  who  look  upon  the  caravans 
as  a  rightful  source  of  their  yearly  income. 

This  view  is  not  surprising  when  we  consider  the  Bed- 
ouin's life  and  his  viewing  the  desert  as  his  own.  The 
mutual  relation  between  the  tribes  of  the  Hedjaz  is 
a  complicated  threefold  one,  "Askhab,"  comrades, 
namely,  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  between 
tribes ;  "  Kaum,"  hostile  tribes  between  whom  is  constant 
war ;  and  "  Akhwan,"  brotherhood,  an  alliance  for  defend- 
ing their  land  from  all  outsiders,  in  a  manner  forbidding 
all  others  from  passing  through  or  profiting  by  their  ter- 
ritory in  any  way  without  paying  a  toll.  As  the  pilgrims 
passing  in  great  caravans  break  this  law  when  not  paying 
the  Bedouins  a  certain  tribute,  the  latter  consider  they 
have  a  perfect  right  to  take  it  by  force  in  the  way  of  rob- 
bery. In  spite  of  large  sums  spent  by  the  Turkish  Gov- 
ernment as  toll  money  to  many  Bedouin  tribes,  it  is  im- 
possible for  them  to  make  their  authority  felt  in  the  water- 
less desert,  where  the  Bedouin  is  at  home  and  holds  the 
caravan  with  its  scanty  water  supply  at  his  mercy. 

The  most  powerful  tribe  in  the  Hedjaz  is  the  Beni 
Kharb,  who  are  able  to  put  19,000  armed  horsemen  in  the 
field.  This  tribe  is  divided  into  two  main  branches,  the 
Beni  Salem  and  Masrukh,  which  in  turn  have  numerous 
subdivisions. 

The  robbery  of  pilgrim  caravans  takes  place  almost 
annually,  and  I  have  personally  seen  hundreds  of  pilgrims 
who,  having  been  robbed,  managed  in  some  way  to  get 
back  as  far  as  Constantinople. 

The  completion  of  the  Hedjaz  railway  to  Mecca  via 
Medina  will  of  course  change  the  entire  form  of  the 
Hadj,  and  will  have  an  enormous  influence  on  the  whole 


PILGRIMAGES  TO   MEDINA  289 

Moslem  world.  It  will  draw  the  pilgrims  back  to  the 
historical  Damascus  route,  but  railway  cars  and  locomo- 
tives will  replace  tents  and  camels. 

The  cheapness  of  this  route  will  make  it  preferable  to 
that  of  the  Suez  Canal,  as  it  is  intended  to  make  the  en- 
tire cost  of  the  ticket  from  Damascus  to  Mecca  and  back 
but  £3,  or  less  than  $15. 

In  1910  the  Hedjaz  railway  reached  Medina,  and  soon 
the  description  of  the  Hadj  as  given  in  this  chapter  will 
be  past  history. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
IN  THE  LAND  OF  THE  "  LION  AND  THE  SUN  " 

Climate  of  Persia — Forms  of  Irrigation — Three  Types  of  Villages — 
Cultivation  of  the  Soil — Sheep-raising — Haying — Gardens  and  Or- 
chards— Three  Enemies  of  the  Farmer — The  Agricultural  Class — 
Persian  Cities — Baths — Instances  of  Burying  Alive — Squares — Street 
Dogs. 

"IRAN  has  seven  climates,"  every  Persian  will  tell  you 
with  pride  if  the  conversation  turns  on  the  climate  of  his 
native  land.  And  he  is  not  far  from  right,  for  though 
Persia  occupies  an  area  of  about  six  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  square  miles,  it  presents  the  greatest, 
variety  of  climatic  conditions.  Not  only  do  we  find  the 
differences  natural  in  the  extreme  northern  and  southern 
parts  of  the  country — as  the  cool  plateaus  of  Azerbaijan 
and  Khorasan  as  compared  with  the  almost  tropical  heat 
of  the  districts  bordering  on  the  Persian  Gulf — but  there 
is  a  great  difference  also  to  be  found  in  the  climate  of  one 
and  the  same  district  owing  to  the  nearness  of  mountains. 
As,  for  instance,  in  the  cities  of  Tabriz,  Teheran  and 
Meshed,  the  summers  are  very  hot,  but  a  few  hours'  ride 
up  into  the  surrounding  hills  will  at  once  bring  one  into 
a  cool  and  delightful  atmosphere.  The  possibility,  there- 
fore, of  changing  quickly  and  within  a  few  miles  the  con- 
ditions of  life,  the  very  climate  and  nature,  is  one  of  the 
most  characteristic  features  of  Persia. 

The  Iran  plateau  is  surrounded  on  nearly  every  side 
by  mountain  barriers  that  have  connecting  chains.  Such 
topographical  peculiarities  naturally  influence  the  cli- 
mate. The  moist  air  brought  by  the  winds  from  the  sea 

290 


LAND  OF  THE  "  LION  AND  THE  SUN  "     291 

becomes  cooler  as  it  rises  to  the  higher  altitudes,  where 
finally,  freed  from  vapour,  it  reaches  the  centre  of  the 
plateau  in  the  form  of  dry  air.  While,  therefore,  we  find 
that  the  regions  lying  along  the  Caspian  are  damp,  and 
the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf  are  moist  and  very  hot,  the 
central  provinces  have  a  continental  climate  with  little 
rain  and  very  dry  atmosphere.  The  greater  part  of  Persia 
has  almost  no  rain  in  the  summer,  and  in  the  autumn  rains 
set  in  that  become  snow  on  the  mountains.  In  the  spring 
the  melting  snow  feeds  the  mountain  streams  that  irrigate 
the  plains  below. 

Owing  to  such  a  formation  of  the  country  there  are  no 
navigable  rivers  in  Persia,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Karun,  that  flows  into  the  Shatt-el-Arab  and  is  navigable 
only  in  its  lower  part.  All  other  rivers  are  turbulent  moun- 
tain streams,  unnavigable  even  in  the  springtime,  and 
partly  or  entirely  drying  up  in  the  autumn.  But  even  such 
rivers  are  few,  the  Aras  (Araxes),  Atrek,  and  the  Sefid- 
Rud  in  the  Caspian  basin,  and  the  Mand  and  Jperrahi  in 
that  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  remaining  rivers,  having 
no  outlet  to  the  sea,  fall  into  salt  lakes  or  are  lost  in 
swamps  or  sand. 

Owing  to  the  absence  of  rains  in  the  central  part  of  the 
country  artificial  irrigation  has  to  be  employed.  Water 
in  Persia  is  life.  In  the  Shariat,  land  is  considered  as 
belonging  to  the  one  who  "  gives  it  life  " — that  is,  irri- 
gates it.  Wherever  there  is  a  natural  or  artificial  water- 
course, the  desert  immediately  blooms,  and  in  such  places 
Persia  is  really  the  garden  described  by  poets.  A  failure 
in  the  water  supply  necessitates  the  desertion  of  the  place 
and  explains  the  barren  ruins  that  mark  once  fertile  spots. 
Nowhere  is  water  so  prized  and  so  a  part  of  the  very  life 
as  in  Persia.  Describing  the  climate  of  a  place  the  Per- 
sian says,  "  Ab  hawasie  khob  est " — its  water  and  air  are 
good.  The  highest  praise  of  a  place  is  "  ab  ziad  dorcd  " 
— it  is  well  watered. 


292         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

The  most  universal  means  of  obtaining  water  is  a  very 
ingenious  one.  In  some  fold  of  the  mountain  where  the 
presence  of  water  is  indicated  a  well  is  dug  of  about  a 
yard  in  diameter  and  sometimes  as  deep  as  150  to  200  feet 
If  water  is  found,  another  well  is  dug,  some  70  or  90  feet 
from  the  first,  and  then  a  third,  and  so  on  in  a  straight 
line,  and  these  wells  are  all  connected  underground  by  a 
tunnel,  2j  or  3  feet  high.  Such  a  line  of  wells  of  ten  extends 
for  miles,  the  wells  of  course  decreasing  in  depth  as  lower 
ground  is  reached,  until  the  last  one  may  not  be  over  four 
feet  deep,  and  then  the  water  in  one  united  stream  is  car- 
ried off  by  the  irrigating  canals.  Such  streams  are  called 
Rud  Khaneh.  Rud  means  river,  but  as  rivers  are  so  scarce 
in  most  parts  of  Persia,  these  artificial  canals  are  all  that 
the  people  can  understand  by  the  term.  The  quantity  of 
water  in  their  canals  is  measured  by  the  seng — stone. 
They  will  tell  you  that  "this  river  has  four  stones  of 
water."  A  stone  is  a  quantity  of  water  capable  of  turning 
a  small  millstone — that  is,  a  stream  of  water  of  from  four 
to  five  inches  in  diameter.  Anyone  owning  a  "  stone  "  of 
water  may  be  considered  to  be  in  opulent  circum- 
stances. 

The  quantity  of  water  given  to  each  cultivator  is  esti- 
mated by  so  many  hours  a  week.  A  gardener  will  tell 
you  "  he  has  two  hours  of  water,"  meaning  that  for  two 
hours  every  week  throughout  the  season  the  water  is 
turned  into  his  plot  of  ground.  The  owners  of  the  wells, 
or  "  kanats,"  sell  water  by  the  hour,  or  one  can  obtain  a 
partnership  in  a  kanat.  It  is  impossible  to  state  the  aver- 
age price  of  water  by  the  hour,  for  it  varies  in  different 
parts  and  depends  upon  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  kanat, 
the  situation  of  the  village  and  the  number  of  kanats  it 
may  possess.  Near  Teheran  ten  years  ago,  a  "  seng  "  of 
water  once  a  week  cost  about  one  hundred  dollars  for  the 
According  to  this  estimate,  a  kanat  that  is  sold  for 


TYPE  OF  ARAB  PHYSICIAN 


LAND  OF  THE  "  LION  AND  THE  SUN  "    293 

every  hour  of  the  twenty-four  will  give  an  annual  income 
of  two  thousand  four  hundred  and  eighty  dollars. 

The  digging  and  preservation  of  these  kanats  is  a  very 
costly  undertaking.  The  men  making  it  their  profession 
are  called  "  muganni,"  and  are  wonderfully  clever  in  dis- 
covering water  and  in  choosing  the  direction  for  their 
wells.  They  are  very  secretive  and  jealously  guard  the 
principles  that  guide  them.  There  is  always  a  risk  of 
making  a  mistake,  and  then  the  owner  of  the  kanat  loses 
large  sums,  but  this  seldom  happens.  Oftener  a  rich 
source  of  water  is  found,  bringing  a  large  premium  on  the 
capital  expended. 

The  work  of  digging  the  wells  is  laborious  arid  slow. 
Small  spades  are  used,  and  a  wheel  is  rigged  up  at  the 
mouth  of  the  well  by  means  of  which  the  earth  is  brought 
up  in  leather  buckets  and  emptied  around  the  well,  so  that 
in  the  end  each  well  is  surrounded  by  a  circular  pile  of 
earth  and  is  as  in  a  crater.  So  long  as  the  earth  thus  piled 
up  keeps  its  shape,  the  position  of  the  wells  is  well  de- 
fined, and  long  lines  of  such  mounds  running  in  all  direc- 
tions and  often  many  lines  parallel  is  one  of  the  most 
characteristic  features  of  the  landscape.  But  when  with 
time  and  the  action  of  rains  these  guarding  ramparts  be- 
come obliterated,  the  kanats  form  a  serious  danger  to  the 
belated  or  unwary  traveller,  and  many  are  the  accidents 
caused  by  them. 

The  actual  digging  of  the  well  is  the  easiest  part  of  the 
work.  The  most  painful  is  the  connecting  gallery  or 
tunnel,  where,  owing  to  its  lowness,  the  work  has  to  be 
done  kneeling  and  bent  nearly  double,  often  in  a  consid- 
erable depth  of  cold  water. 

The  Shariat  gives  precise  instructions  as  to  the  distance 
from  each  other  at  which  parallel  lines  of  kanats  belong- 
ing to  different  parties  may  be  carried  out  without  affect- 
ing each  other's  water  supply. 


294 

A  second  means  of  irrigation  is  employed  where  there 
are  rivers  or  mountain  streams,  and  consists  in  drawing 
the  water  from  them  into  canals.  In  such  a  way  the  rice 
plantations  near  the  Caspian  in  Azerbaijan  and  Khorasan 
are  watered. 

The  third  system  is  that  of  making  reservoirs  or  dams 
where  mountain  streams  are  formed  in  the  springtime  by 
the  melting  snows  and  rains.  These  dams  are  called 
"derbends,"  and  the  many  villages  bearing  that  name 
and  situated  where  such  irrigation  could  easily  be  had, 
but  is  not  resorted  to  now,  proves  that  in  older  times  this 
simple  means  demanding  only  foresight  was  more  univer- 
sal than  it  is  at  the  present  time. 

Viewed  from  a  distance  Persian  villages  form  dots,  like 
green  oases  on  the  plains.  On  approaching  one  finds 
cultivation  and  trees  only  where  the  irrigating  canals  run. 
Many  villages,  like  the  towns,  are  surrounded  by  high  mud 
walls,  giving  them  a  dreary  aspect.  And  there  is  no  street 
life  or  gaiety  after  dark.  The  chief  feature  of  each  village 
is  its  "  Rud  Khaneh,"  or  stream  of  water  that  runs  through 
the  village  and  then  out  into  the  fields.  On  either  side 
of  these  streams  willow  trees  are  planted,  and  the  branches 
that  are  cut  off  each  year  serve  as  fuel.  The  chief  fuel 
is,  however,  made  by  the  women  in  the  form  of  cakes  of 
manure  mixed  in  water,  and  sometimes  with  a  little 
chopped  straw  added.  These  are  dried  in  the  sun  and 
then  stacked  in  cone-shaped  piles  on  the  flat  roofs  or 
about  the  village  streets. 

In  the  poorer  villages  the  houses  consist  of  one  room, 
which  serves  as  sleeping  and  living  room  for  the  family, 
but  generally  there  are  two  separate  apartments,  one  for 
the  men  and  the  other  for  the  women.  The  stables  for 
greater  safety  are  generally  situated  in  the  innermost  part 
of  the  closely  packed  village,  so  that  often  the  cattle  pass 
through  the  living  room  to  reach  them.  The  roofs  are 


LAND  OF  THE  "LION  AND  THE  SUNr     295 

flat,  with  a  hole  to  let  out  the  smoke.  If  there  are  other 
windows  than  that  hole,  oil  paper  frequently  takes  the 
place  of  glass. 

More  picturesque  are  the  villages  built  on  the  steep 
mountain  slope,  where  the  houses  rise  in  terraces,  the  roof 
of  one  forming  the  yard  of  the  one  next  above.  Large 
villages  have  small  shops,  mosques,  and  often  a  common 
bath. 

The  villages  are  surrounded  by  fields  and  gardens. 
The  great  problem  the  farmer  has  to  face  is  to  carry  out 
the  system  of  irrigating  canals  in  such  a  way  as  to  water 
every  part  of  his  fields  evenly.  In  solving  this  problem, 
the  Persians  have  attained  a  skill  that  is  little  short  of  per- 
fection, and  one  may  sometimes  see  a  stream  running  up- 
hill! 

In  passing  I  must  say  a  few  words  in  regard  to  Persian 
agriculture.  In  most  places  it  is  carried  on  in  a  very 
primitive  way,  the  land  receiving  no  attention  other  than 
a  superficial  turning  over  with  a  wooden  plough  and  then 
watered.  In  some  places,,  fertilisation  of  ashes  or  guano 
is  used.  In  the  plain  of  Urumiah  the  numerous  ash 
heaps,  remains  of  the  fire  worshipper's  epoch,  serve  in  this 
way,  and  in  other  districts,  as  about  Tabriz,  Ispahan  and  in 
Khorasan,  pigeons  are  kept  for  furnishing  guano.  Dotted 
about  among  the  fields  rise  mud  towers  of  thirty  to  forty 
feet  in  height  and  some  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  in  diam- 
eter, whose  thick  walls  are  pierced  with  holes  giving 
access  to  the  nests  built  inside  the  entire  surface  of  the 
inner  wall.  Each  tower  has  a  door  through  which  the 
guano  can  be  carried  out.  On  opening  the  door  one  is 
nearly  deafened  by  the  sound  of  hundreds  of  birds  that 
take  flight.  Each  tower,  it  is  estimated,  gives  in  guano 
about  eight  per  cent,  annually  of  the  sums  expended  in  its 
construction. 

The  grain  ripens  in  many  places  as  early  as  May, 


296 

When  harvested  by  hand,  it  is  placed  on  huge  two- 
wheeled  carts  drawn  by  oxen  or  buffaloes,  or  it  is  loaded 
onto  donkeys  and  carried  to  the  common  threshing  floor 
of  the  village.  Here  the  bundles  are  spread  out  and  first 
threshed  by  driving  over  them  several  oxen  hitched 
abreast.  Then  an  instrument  known  as  "charkh"  is 
used.  A  seat  is  arranged  over  a  number  of  wooden  rollers 
that  turn  as  the  charkh  is  drawn.  Into  these  rollers  are 
sunk  sharp  teeth  or  knives.  The  driver,  seated  on  the 
stool,  drives  around  and  around  over  the  grain,  chopping 
the  straw  into  fine  bits,  the  grain  having  mostly  been 
tramped  out  already  and  dropped  to  the  ground.  After 
this  process  is  finished,  the  winnowing  is  done  by  throwing 
up  the  mass  with  broad  shovels.  This  is  mostly  done  by 
night,  when  there  is  more  chance  of  wind,  and  the  straw 
as  it  is  tossed  up  is  carried  to  one  side,  the  grain  falling 
in  a  heap.  The  chopped  straw  is  used  for  feeding  horses 
and  cattle,  and  the  grain  is  sifted  and  thus  prepared  for 
milling. 

One  great  advantage  enjoyed  by  the  Persian  farmer 
over  his  Western  brother  is  that  he  is  not  pressed  for  time 
nor  obliged  to  profit  by  fair  weather.  He  sows  his  grain, 
waits  patiently  for  it  to  ripen,  harvests  it  at  his  ease,  know- 
ing that  the  threshing  and  winnowing  too  will  be  done 
in  good  weather.  The  cereals  mostly  cultivated  are  wheat 
and  barley,  the  latter  taking  the  place  of  oats  as  horse 
feed.  Both  of  these  are  sown  according  to  circumstances 
as  summer  or  winter  crops,  the  only  difference  being  that 
grain  sown  in  the  fall  ripens  earlier  and  is  more  apt  to 
give  a  good  yield. 

Aside  from  the  large  flocks  of  sheep  kept  by  most  moun- 
tain villages,  each  peasant  on  the  plains  generally  owns 
a  few  sheep  to  furnish  him  with  wool,  cheese  and  milk. 
The  sheep  found  in  Persia  are  of  the  bigtail  variety, 
(Ovis  laticandate  tartar}.  The  tail  sometimes  attains  an 


LAND  OF  THE  "  LION  AND  THE  SUN  "     297 

incredible  size,  and,  like  the  hump  of  the  camel,  undoubt- 
edly furnishes  nourishment  in  times  of  need  to  the  sheep, 
enabling  them  to  exist  seven  to  eight  days  without  food. 
At  such  times,  although  the  tail  becomes  small  and  flabby, 
there  is  no  permanent  bad  result  to  the  health  of  the  ani- 
mal. Sheep  are  easier  to  feed  than  any  of  the  other  milk- 
giving  domestic  animals,  and  are  a  great  help  and  source 
of  wealth  to  the  peasants.  In  some  parts  of  Persia  sheep 
often  bear  young  twice  a  year. 

Another  domestic  animal  very  often  met  with  is  the 
long-suffering  ass,  without  which  one  cannot  imagine 
Persia  as  existing.  They  are  hardy,  easily  satisfied  as  to 
food,  living  on  straw  and  thistles  if  they  cannot  get  better. 
They  are  used  as  beasts  of  burden  and  often  for  drawing 
the  plough  and  threshing  instruments. 

I  remember  a  poor  man  in  Meshed  whose  entire  wealth 
seemed  to  consist  of  a  wife,  ass  and  a  baby — named  in 
order  of  usefulness.  On  our  rides  we  used  to  pass  his  little 
plot  of  rented  land.  In  the  spring  we  would  see  the  wife 
and  ass  together  drawing  the  plough,  which  was  guided 
by  the  husband,  the  baby  toddling  behind  or  asleep  in  the 
rough  booth  they  had  rigged  up  for  the  season.  When 
the  grain  ripened  the  man  and  woman  laboriously  reaped 
it,  while  the  ass  browsed  by  them,  glad  of  his  season  of 
respite.  And  so  we  watched  the  work  carried  on  in  all 
its  stages  by  the  three,  until,  completed,  the  little  donkey 
carried  home  on  his  back  first  the  grain,  then  the  straw, 
and  lastly  the  booth,  household  belongings  and  baby. 

In  the  absence  of  sufficient  grass  land,  the  Persians  are 
obliged  to  sow  grass  for  hay.  The  variety  most  univer- 
sally cultivated  is  lucerne,  "ynja"  (Medlcago  sativa). 
It  is  harvested  three  times  a  year,  and,  once  sown,  can  be 
continued  on  the  same  place  fifteen  years.  Then,  too,  is 
to  be  found  esparset  (epobrychis),  that  grows  well  and 
that  is  used  in  medicine  for  rheumatism.  In  some  moun- 


298         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

tain  regions,  grain  i^sown  in  fields  that  are  not  artificially 
watered  nor  fertilised.  Under  such  conditions,  a  field 
that  yields  three  to  four  fold  is  considered  poor.  If  his 
craft  brings  in  five  fold,  a  Persian  will  tell  you  that  it  is 
not  bad — "  bed  neest."  In  the  most  fertile  regions,  as,  for 
instance,  the  valley  of  Beramen  near  Teheran,  where  the 
fields  receive  artificial  irrigation  and  fertilisation,  the 
yield  is  from  ten  to  twenty  fold  under  favourable  circum- 
stances. The  vegetable  and  fruit  gardens  are  carefully 
cultivated,  as  are  the  vineyards.  Booths  are  built  for  watch- 
men, scarecrows  put  up  and  a  horse's  skull  fastened  to 
a  pole  to  keep  off  the  evil  eye.  In  case  the  watchman's 
vigilance  be  not  sufficient,  a  paper  is  stuck  up  on  which  is 
written  the  punishment  awaiting  the  thief  in  the  next 
world  according  to  the  Koran,  as  well  as  a  personal  curse 
that  the  stealer  of  other  people's  good  things  may  expect. 
There  are  three  formidable  foes  to  be  faced  by  the  Per- 
sian agriculturist:  a  sno^less  winter  in  the  mountains, 
locusts,  and  the  injij^ticc  and  rapacity  of  his  landlord. 
Experience  has  taught  t&e  inhabitants  of  each  district  how 
the  snow  lines  on  the  mountains  predict  a  dry  summer; 
and  if  in  the  spring  a  sufficient  fall  of  snow  has  not  been 
marked,  the  price  of  grain  goes  up,  whereas,  on  the  con- 
trary, if  a  good  fall  of  snow  comes  the  prices  of  all  eat- 
ables drop. 

Each  village  has  its  ketkhuda,  who  sees  to  the  collecting 
of  taxes  and  general  order.  Also  a  mirab,  who  over- 
sees the  fair  distribution  of  water.  The  duties  of  the  latter 
are  by  no  means  light.  For  the  most  frequent  and  vio- 
lent quarrels,  often  ending  in  bloodshed,  are  traced  to 
water.  When  one  considers  the  high  price  on  every 
"  hour  "  it  is  easy  to  conceive  how  great  is  the  temptation 
of  landowners  during  the  hot,  dry  season  to  steal  a  little 
water  from  his  hour  by  the  simple  stroke  of  a  spade  or 


TYPE  OF  DERVISH 


LAND  OF  THE  "LION  AND  THE  SUN"    299 

by  clearing  away  a  few  inches  of  earth  and  thus  turning 
the  stream  into  his  own  field.  When  we  lived  in  Meshed 
we  had  large  gardens  about  our  city  house  and  had  the 
right  of  water  all  of  Mondays.  The  stream  that  flowed 
through  our  garden  had  to  come  to  us  after  passing 
through  the  gardens  above  us.  Every  little  while  our 
gardener  would  find  his  water  supply  cut  off,  and  we 
would  have  to  send  to  our  neighbours,  one  after  the  other, 
until  we  traced  the  failure  in  the  water  supply  to  its  cause. 
Hot  words  would  be  exchanged  between  our  gardener 
and  the  offending  persons,  and  the  water  would  be  turned 
on  again,  but  hardly  had  our  man  resumed  his  work  be- 
fore the  stream  would  again  cease  or  dwindle  to  half  the 
amount  due  us.  As  a  failure  to  get  our  supply  meant 
leaving  the  garden  unwatered  for  a  whole  week,  it  was  a 
serious  matter,  and  Mondays  were  exciting  days.  If  in 
spite  of  constant  fighting  we  did  not  get  our  full  share  of 
water,  our  gardener  the  next  day  was  sure  to  steal  a  little 
of  the  water  as  it  passed  through  our  grounds  to  our 
next  neighbour,  thereby  bringing  down  upon  us  the  angry 
visits  of  the  neighbour  below  us.  And  this  was  only  for 
pleasure  gardens;  but  when  it  comes  to  rice  and  wheat 
fields,  the  year's  food  of  the  people,  the  fight  for  water 
rights  is  naturally  a  bitter  one. 

Persian  cities,  like  all  those  of  the  East,  are  now  too  well 
known  to  the  general  reader  to  need  a  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  the  narrow,  dirty  streets  inside  the  walled  city  or 
of  the  bazaars  and  cafes.  In  Persia,  however,  unlike  Tur- 
key, in  spite  of  the  unattractive  appearance  of  the  street 
there  is  much  that  is  pleasant  within  the  inhospitable- 
looking  iron-studded  door  that  is  all  that  breaks  the 
monotony  of  the  walls.  Once  within,  gardens  of  fruit  and 
shade  trees,  roses  and  flower  beds,  watered  by  the  running 
streams,  are  sure  to  be  found.  Poor  indeed  must  be  the 


300         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

house  that  has  not  a  few  trees  or  bushes  in  the  little  court- 
yard. As  a  result  Persian  cities  seem  lost  in  a  mass  of 
green. 

While  overlooking  the  bazaars  and  other  familiar 
Oriental  scenes,  I  would  dwell  a  little  on  the  public  baths, 
that  have  so  important  a  place  in  every  Persian  town.  They 
are  generally  large  rambling  buildings  below  the  level  of 
the  street,  with  dome-shaped  roofs  studded  with  glass,  so 
that  the  light  falls  from  above.  The  entrance  to  a  bath 
may  always  be  recognised  first  by  the  long  string  of  loin- 
cloths hung  outside  to  dry,  and  second  by  the  remarkable 
painting  that  adorns  the  niche  above  the  door.  This  is 
always  either  a  scene  from  the  life  of  Rustam,  or  a  very 
fierce  soldier  painted  in  the  brightest  colours,  who  has  a 
very  big  moustache  and  in  every  case  is  wall-eyed  or 
cross-eyed. 

The  bath  is  divided  into  several  rooms,  and  one  apart- 
ment is  set  aside  for  the  operation  of  dyeing  the  hair.  All 
Persians  of  both  sexes  dye  the  hair  a  bright  black  from  the 
cradle.  This  is  the  explanation  of  the  phenomenon  no- 
ticed by  so  many  travellers,  namely,  the  absence  of  grey- 
haired  people  in  Persia.  This  operation  is  performed  at 
stated  times  once  in  four  to  six  weeks,  and  is  considered 
beneficent  to  the  hair,  a  safeguard  against  undesirable 
inhabitants,  and  at  the  same  time  ornamental.  If  the 
time  for  dyeing  the  hair  is  allowed  to  pass,  Persians  affirm 
that  headache  and  eye  trouble  result  and  that  the  habit 
once  formed  cannot  be  dropped. 

The  dye  is  prepared  from  the  leaves  of  the  Lawsonia 
inermis,  and  is  known  in  Persia  as  henna.  This  plant 
is  grown  in  the  south  of  Persia.  A  paste  is  made  of  the 
powdered  dried  leaves  of  the  Lawsonia  and  of  warm 
water.  This  paste  is  well  plastered  over  the  hair,  beard 
and  such  parts  of  the  body  as  are  to  be  dyed — the  finger 
nails,  palms  of  the  hands,  soles  of  the  feet  and  toe  nails. 


LAND  OF  THE  "LION  AND  THE  SUN"    301 

The  paste  must  remain  on  for  two  or  three  hours,  during 
which  time  it  is  kept  moist.  At  the  expiration  of  the  two 
hours  the  paste  is  carefully  washed  off,  leaving  a  bright 
orange  colour.  The  hands  and  feet  are  allowed  to  remain 
thus,  but  on  the  hair  and  beard  another  paste  is  applied 
made  in  the  same  manner  but  of  the  leaves  of  the  Indigo- 
fera,  a  plant  cultivated  in  Kerman.  This  paste  is  allowed 
to  remain  for  another  two  hours,  and  when  washed  off  the 
hair  is  found  to  be  a  beautiful  shining  black. 

Some  do  not  apply  the  second  dye,  leaving  the  beard 
an  orange  red,  which  one  often  sees  in  Persia.  White 
sheep  are  occasionally  dyed  with  henna;  also  the  tails  of 
all  the  shah's  horses.  Chestnut-coloured  horses,  even 
when  owned  by  private  individuals,  generally  have  their 
tails  dyed,  but  for  horses  of  all  other  colpurs  this  privi- 
lege belongs  only  to  those  owned  by  the  shah. 

As  the  entire  operation  of  dyeing  the  hair  occupies  five 
or  six  hours,  the  part  of  the  bath  used  for  this  purpose  is 
a  regular  club,  as  the  Persians  lunch  here,  tea  and  pipes 
are  brought  and  the  news  of  the  day  exchanged.  This 
room  is  also  a  barber's  shop,  for  before  the  dyeing  the 
head  is  shaved  and  the  beard  trimmed.  The  ordinary 
Persian  shaves  a  strip  of  about  four  fingers  broad  from 
the  forehead  right  through  to  the  neck.  Mullahs,  sayids 
and  in  general  those  wearing  turbans  shave  the  entire 
head.  Only  dancers  and  dervishes  wear  long  hair,  while 
Europeanised  Persians  do  not  shave  the  head  at  all. 

The  poorer  classes  have  their  barber's  work  done  in  the 
street  wherever  they  may  meet  a  perambulating  barber, 
who  is  also  a  dentist. 

Special  hours  are  set  apart  each  day  for  the  women, 
and  this  is  announced  by  the  bathkeeper,  who  goes  onto 
the  roof  and  blows  most  dismally  on  a  long  horn. 

In  Persia  no  unbelievers  are  permitted  to  visit  a  Mos- 
lem bath,  and  I  succeeded  in  doing  so  in  a  small  town  only 


302 

after  much  arguing  with  the  bathkeeper.  After  a  long 
time,  and  the  exchange  from  my  pocket  to  his  of  certain 
coins  'of  the  realm,  he  permitted  me  to  do  so,  but  under 
one  condition — that  I  ride  on  the  back  of  one  of  the  stal- 
wart bath  boys,  so  as  not  to  pollute  the  bath  by  my  touch. 

In  the  same  humiliating  manner  I  was  enabled  to  visit 
the  mosque  of  Ardabil  and  to  see  the  now  famous  carpet, 
parts  of  which  are,  I  believe,  in  the  Kensington  Museum. 
I  was  struck  then  by  its  beauty,  but  had  I  foreseen  the 
fabulous  price  it  brought  years  later,  tattered  as  it  was,  I 
should  have  made  an  effort  to  raise  the  money  for  buying 
it,  although  I  was  then  young  and  my  pay  but  small. 

Another  characteristic  of  the  Persian  cities  that  should 
not  be  overlooked  are  the  cemeteries.  These  are  found 
where  one  would  least  expect  them,  namely,  in  the  centre 
of  the  towns.  They  are  not  surrounded  by  fence  or  wall. 
They  are  a  sort  of  open  square  over  which  to  make 
short  cuts  when  you  walk  or  ride.  They  are  the 
playgrounds  of  the  poor  children  and  the  homes  of 
packs  of  street  dogs  that  often  dig  open  the  shallow 
graves.  During  the  rainy  season  the  water  occasionally 
washes  away  the  ground,  forming  hollows  and  holes 
through  which  the  badly-made  coffin,  if  there  is  one,  or 
the  swathed  corpse,  may  be  seen.  It  is  unnecessary  to  say 
that  the  quarters  of  the  city  that  surround  these  numerous 
cemeteries  are  the  seat  of  much  disease.  In  many  of  these 
graveyards  something  like  temporary  mausoleums  are 
made  to  receive  bodies  that  are  eventually  to  be  carried  to 
Kerbela,  Meshed,  or  some  other  sacred  spot.  To  the  same 
end  many  go  so  far  as  to  bury  their  dead  in  their  own  gar- 
den or  cellars  until  they  can  be  removed.  Foreign  lega- 
tions and  consuls  have  much  difficulty  in  persuading  the 
authorities  to  prohibit  this  dangerous  practice. 

If  possible  the  dead  are  always  buried  on  the  same  day, 
and  often  within  a  very  few  hours  after  death  has  taken 
place.  In  a  land  where  in  many  cases  one  room  has  to 


LAND  OF  THE  "  LION  AND  THE  SUN  "    303 

serve  as  living  and  sleeping  room  for  the  whole  family, 
this  custom  may  have  its  advantages.  But  it  also  has  its 
horrible  side,  for  many  cases  have  been  known  where  the 
person  was  not  really  dead  when  buried.  In  the  absence 
of  skilled  physicians  this  may  easily  happen,  but  little  at- 
tention is  paid  to  it  and  no  measures  of  precaution  are 
taken.  Once  the  person  ceases  to  breathe  and  becomes 
cold,  the  soul  is  supposed  to  have  left  the  body,  and  can 
return  only  on  the  day  of  the  last  judgment.  Therefore 
the  possibility  of  a  lethargy  is  not  admitted. 

I  was  told  by  reliable  persons  of  a  case  that  occurred  in 
Ardabil  sixty  years  ago.  One  evening  a  Persian  passing 
through  a  cemetery  distinctly  heard  cries  issuing  from  a 
grave.  At  first  he  was  so  frightened  that  he  started  to  run, 
but  on  second  thought  he  called  Allah  to  his  aid  and,  ap- 
proaching a  grave,  heard  clearly  calls  for  help  issuing 
from  it.  As  the  grave  was  very  shallow,  he  was  able  to 
dig  it  open  with  his  hands  and  stick,  and  soon  came  to  the 
coffin,  from  which  he  helped  out  a  woman.  He  led  her  to 
her  home,  but  her  people  refused  to  receive  her.  The 
unfortunate  creature  passed  the  night  in  the  street,  and  on 
the  following  morning  a  large  crowd  escorted  her  to  a 
Mudjtaheid,  who  read  verses  from  the  Koran  proving  that 
the  dead  do  not  rise  until  the  last  day  and  commanded  her 
to  be  put  to  death  and  be  buried  again  1  Such  facts  could 
not  take  place  now,  of  course,  but  that  many  instances  oc- 
curred where  persons  supposed  to  have  been  dead  were 
not  so  when  buried,  I  can  vouch  for. 

Maidans,  or  squares,  are  also  inseparable  from  the 
Persian  cities.  They  are  generally  situated  in  front  of 
the  governor's  palace  or  artillery  barracks.  They  serve 
for  parades  and  executions  and  also  in  passing  as  a  gen- 
eral rubbish  heap,  and  here,  as  everywhere,  are  the  mis- 
erable street  dogs,  whose  lot  is  even  worse  than  that  of 
their  brethren,  the  world-famed  dogs  of  Constantinople. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  POSITION  OF  WOMEN  IN  THE  MOSLEM  WORLD, 
ACCORDING  TO  THE  TEACHINGS  OF  THE  KORAN 

Woman  as  a  Creature  Distinguished  by  her  Love  of  Ornaments  and 
Disputing  without  Reason — Woman  as  the  Property  of  her  Husband 
— Principle  of  Control  over  Woman  as  Found  in  the  Koran — Are 
Women  Admitted  to  Paradise? — Harems  and  their  Exclusiveness — 
The  Koran's  View  as  to  the  Benefits  of  Marriage — Polygamy — Prin- 
ciple of  Equality  among  Wives — Easiness  of  Divorce  One  of  the 
Curses  of  Islamism — Property  Rights  of  Women. 

ONE  may  live  years  in  the  Moslem  East  without  really 
getting  at  the  life  of  the  women.  This  is  owing  to  their 
isolation,  and  to  the  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  men  to 
hide  their  family  life  from  all  outside  gaze.  But  there  is 
a  means  other  than  personal  observation  by  which  the  cur- 
tain may  be  drawn  from  the  mysterious  harem  life,  and  by 
which  a  light  may  be  thrown  that  at  once  brings  out  in 
bold  relief  the  position  of  the  women.  This  is  the  Koran, 
with  its  teachings  concerning  marriage,  divorce  laws,  and 
the  property  rights  of  women.  According  to  these  laws 
the  life  of  the  Mohammmedan  woman  is  regulated — be  it 
in  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  in  the  palaces  of  the  Bosphorus, 
in  the  "  urtas  "  of  the  Turkoman  and  Kirghiz,  or  in  the 
villages  of  Kazan  and  Orinburgh  provinces.  There  may 
be  in  these  various  places  certain  exceptions,  or  differ- 
ences in  the  details  as  to  the  number  of  wives,  laws  govern- 
ing divorce,  etc.,  but  these  exceptions  do  not  in  the  main 
change  the  position  of  woman  as  it  is  clearly  defined  in 
all  Mohammedan  countries. 

3°4 


30$ 

First  of  all  we  see  that  the  Koran  looks  upon  woman  as 
an  imperfect,  weak  creature,  standing  on  a  lower  plane 
than  that  occupied  by  man ;  as  beings  that  are  "  brought 
up  among  ornaments  and  are  contentious  without  cause  " 
(Sura  43,  verse  17).  The  same  idea,  as  elaborated  in  an- 
other chapter,  can  be  traced  in  the  names  of  women  and 
in  the  adjectives  used  to  describe  the  sex. 

Beginning  from  this  view  of  woman  and  the  statement 
that  "  the  men  ought  to  have  a  superiority  over  them  " 
(Sura  2,  verse  228),  the  Koran  regards  a  woman  as  her 
husband's  property,  to  be  treated  as  he  wills.  "  Your 
wives  are  your  tillage;  go  in  therefore  to  your  tillage  in 
what  manner  soever  ye  will."  (Sura  22,  verse  223.) 
Further  in  the  38th  verse  of  the  4th  Sura  we  find,  "  Men 
shall  have  the  pre-eminence  above  women,  because  of 
those  advantages  wherein  God  hath  caused  the  one  of  them 
to  excel  the  other;  and  for  that  which  they  expend  of  their 
substance  in  maintaining  their  wives.  The  honest  women 
are  obedient,  careful  in  the  absence  of  their  husbands,  for 
that  God  preserveth  them  by  committing  them  to  the  care 
and  protection  of  the  men.  But  those  whose  perverseness 
ye  shall  be  apprehensive  of  rebuke;  and  remove  them  into 
separate  apartments  and  chastise  them.  But  if  they  shall 
be  obedient  unto  you,  seek  not  an  occasion  of  quarrel 
against  them;  for  God  is  high  and  great." 

Once  acknowledging  in  principle  that  "  man  is  higher 
than  woman,"  the  logical  sequence  is  that  the  Moslem  law 
regards  a  woman  as  but  half  of  a  man.  In  the  2d 
Sura  of  the  Koran  we  read,  "  And  called  to  witness  two 
witnesses  of  your  neighbouring  men:  but,  if  there  not  be 
two  men,  let  there  be  a  man  and  two  women  of  those  whom 
ye  shall  choose  for  witnesses ;  if  one  of  these  women  should 
mistake,  the  other  of  them  will  cause  her  to  remember." 
If  the  witnesses  be  only  women,  however  many,  their  tes- 
timony is  not  admitted. 


306         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

Further,  in  the  laws  concerning  the  price  of  blood,  just 
half  the  sum  named  for  the  murder  of  a  man  is  given  as 
the  price  of  a  woman's  blood.  In  following  out  the  idea 
of  a  woman's  standing  on  a  lower  plane  than  a  man  we 
find  that  women  do  not  as  a  rule  share  the  titles  of  their 
husbands. 

Are  women  admitted  to  Paradise?  is  a  question  that  is 
often  asked,  and  answered  by  most  Europeans  in  the  neg- 
ative. We  find,  however,  more  than  one  passage  in  the 
Koran  that  distinctly  speaks  of  a  future  life  in  Paradise 
for  women.  The  most  often  quoted  is  the  one  promising 
the  Faithful  that  he  will  meet  in  Paradise  besides  his  own 
earthly  wives  seventy-two  hourls — not  an  attractive  pros- 
pect for  the  poor  women,  who  have  suffered  enough  in 
this  life  from  the  humiliations  of  polygamy!  But  in  the 
4th  Sura  we  find  the  following  more  definite  statement: 
"  But  whoso  doeth  good  works,  whether  he  be  male  or 
female,  and  is  a  true  believer,  they  shall  be  admitted  into 
Paradise,  and  shall  not  in  the  least  be  unjustly  dealt  with." 

The  isolation  and  veiling  of  women  was  undoubtedly 
borrowed  by  Mohammed,  as  were  so  many  other  of  his 
ideas,  from  the  customs  about  him  and  th'e  age  in  which 
he  lived.  The  veiling  of  women  and  separate  apartments 
for  them  are  to  be  found  both  in  Asia  and  in  ancient 
Greece  and  Rome  in  times  that  date  back  to  days  long 
before  Mohammed's  teachings,  or  the  Christian  era.  But 
that  this  idea  found  rich  soil  in  the  jealous  and  sensuous 
character  of  the  Prophet  is  to  be  easily  conceived.  Al- 
though there  is  no  absolute  command  about  covering  the 
face,  the  spirit  of  the  teachings  that  lead  to  the  veiling 
and  isolation  of  women  is  found  running  through  the 
Koran  and  the  traditions  of  the  sayings  of  Mohammed. 
For  instance,  we  read  in  the  33d  Sura,  "And  when  ye  ask 
of  the  Prophet's  wives  what  ye  may  have  occasion  for,  ask 
it  of  them  from  behind  a  curtain."  And  again,  "O 


PERSIAN  WOMAN 


THE   POSITION   OF  WOMEN  307 

Prophet,  speak  unto  thy  wives  and  thy  daughters  and  the 
wives  of  the  true  believers  that  they  cast  their  outer  gar- 
ments1 over  them  when  they  walk  abroad;  this  will  be 
more  proper,  that  they  may  be  known  to  be  matrons  of 
reputation,  and  may  not  be  affronted  by  unseemly  words 
or  actions.  God  is  gracious  and  merciful."  (Sura  33, 
verse  59.)  In  the  55th  verse  of  the  23d  Sura  we  read, 
"  And  speak  unto  the  believing  women  that  they  restrain 
their  eyes  and  preserve  their  modesty  and  discover  not 
their  ornaments  except  what  necessarily  appeareth 
thereof;  and  let  them  throw  their  veils  over  their  bosoms 
and  not  show  their  ornaments  except  to  their  husbands, 
or  their  fathers,  or  their  husband's  fathers,  or  their  sons, 
or  their  husband's  sons,  or  their  brothers,  or  their  broth- 
er's sons,  or  their  sister's  sons,  or  their  women,  or  the  cap- 
tives which  their  right  hands  shall  possess,  or  unto  such 
men  as  attend  them  and  have  no  need  of  women ;  or  unto 
children  that  distinguish  not  the  nakedness  of  women." 

Undoubtedly  to  such  teachings  must  be  laid  the  fact 
that  to  the  present  time  in  every  country  where  Islamism 
is  professed  with  any  degree  of  strictness  the  veiling  of 
women  and  their  isolation  are  as  much  a  part  of  their 
religion  and  life  as  are  polygamy  or  pilgrimages.  The 
movement  among  enlightened  women  of  to-day  which 
endeavors  to  prove  that  the  Koran  does  not  advocate  the 
veiling  of  women  is  no  doubt  based  more  on  the  letter 
than  on  the  spirit  of  Mohammedanism.  Although 
there  may  be  many  worthy  exceptions  this  attempt 
will  raise  strong  opposers  who  cling  to  polygamy 
and  to  the  isolation  of  women.  My  own  opinion  is  that 
in  spite  of  the  brave  stand  that  women  are  taking  in  try- 

1  The  original  word  properly  signifies  the  large  wrappers,  usually  of 
white  linen,  with  which  the  women  in  the  East  cover  themselves  from  head 
to  foot  when  they  go  abroad." — Footnote  to  Sales'  translation  of  the  Koran 
which  is  the  one  I  have  followed  in  the  foregoing  quotations. 


308         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

ing  to  prove  that  they  can  have  liberty  and  progress 
within  the  Islamic  walls,  they  are  mistaken.  The  rights 
of  polygamy  and  its  humiliating  companions,  the  veiling 
and  isolation  of  women,  will  always  be  found  to  go  hand 
in  hand  with  strict  Mohammedanism. 

Not  only  do  Mohammedans,  and  the  Persians  in  par- 
ticular, demand  that  their  women's  faces  be  closely  veiled, 
but  they  consider  that  even  the  accidental  gaze  of  an  out- 
sider is  a  sin.  Moreover,  the  husband  never  speaks  of 
his  wife  to  his  acquaintances.  If  obliged  to  mention  her 
it  is  by  some  other  term  than  wife,  as  "  mother  of  my  son," 
or  "  my  house."  She  must  not  exist  for  anyone  but  her 
husband,  and  from  all  others  she  must  be  hidden — non- 
existing.  For  this  reason,  when  the  harems  of  governors 
or  very  high  personages  pass  through  the  streets  of  Persia, 
the  men  whom  they  meet  either  turn  their  backs  or 
slip  down  a  by-street  or  into  some  convenient  door- 
way. 

On  the  ground,  then,  of  the  interpretation  of  the  spirit 
if  not  the  letter  of  the  Koran  and  its  commentators,  we 
find  that  in  every  country  where  the  Mohammedans  are 
scattered,  isolation  of  women  and  their  position  as  infe- 
rior beings  are  the  chief  features  of  their  social  organi- 
sations. Not  one  of  the  more  definite  commands  of  the 
Koran  is  as  rigidly  fulfilled  as  this.  The  harem  is  in 
every  sense  of  the  word  the  holy  of  holies  of  the  Moslem 
world,  that  no  individual  or  government  can  violate  with 
impunity.  If  a  police  investigation  is  carried  out,  or  a 
criminal  sought,  this  is  done  so  far  as  the  doors  of  the 
harem,  but  farther  than  that  they  dare  not  go.  The  ex- 
ceptional cases  where  this  has  been  done  have  always  been 
followed  by  more  or  less  serious  consequences. 

The  Shiites,  more  fanatical  than  the  Sunnites  in  their 
dislike  of  having  the  yards  of  their  harems  overlooked 


309 

from  higher  roofs,  object  to  minarets.1  This  picturesque 
addition  to  Turkish  villages  and  cities  is  therefore  never 
seen  in  Persia,  the  call  for  prayer  being  made  from  the 
flat  roofs  of  the  mosques. 

Having  admitted  the  principle  of  polygamy,  the  Koran 
has  a  good  deal  to  say  on  the  benefits  of  the  married  state. 
In  the  32d  verse  of  the  24th  Sura  we  find  the  following 
injunction :  "  Marry  those  who  are  single  among  you  and 
such  as  are  honest  of  your  men  servants  and  your  maid 
servants:  if  they  be  poor,  God  will  enrich  them  of  his 
abundance:  for  God  is  bounteous  and  wise."  In  another 
place  the  Koran  enjoins  all  to  marry  and  found  families, 
and  adds-  that  bachelors  are  the  worst  of  mankind. 

With  this  view  of  marriage  we  find  Mohammedans 
marrying  their  young  people  as  early  in  life  as  possible, 
with  no  regard  as  to  whether  they  have  the  means  to  do 
so,  basing  their  claim  for  God's  aid  upon  the  above 
quoted  verses  about  God's  enriching  the  poor. 

In  justifying  polygamy  they  turn  to  the  words  found  in 
the  4th  Sura  and  3d  verse:  "And  if  ye  fear  that  ye  shall 
not  act  with  equity  towards  orphans  of  the  female  sex, 
take  in  marriage  of  such  other  women  as  please  you,  two, 
or  three  or  four,  and  not  more.  But  if  ye  fear  that  ye 
cannot  act  equitably  toward  so  many,  marry  one  only  or 
the  slaves  that  ye  have  acquired." 

The  above  also  shows  us  that  more  than  four  wives 
are  forbidden  from  the  fear  of  unequal  treatment  of  so 
many;  but  if  this  fear  does  not  exist  one  can  infer  the 
lawfulness  of  adding  to  this  number.  The  Prophet  him- 
self set  the  example  by  taking  a  greater  number,  though 
some  theologians  regard  that  as  a  privilege  granted  to 
him  alone.  The  four  wives  do  not  include  the  slave 

1  In  the  rare  instances  where  minarets  are  found  in  Persia,  they  are  gen- 
erally for  ornament,  and  not  for  the  muezzin  to  ascend. 


310 

women,  and  the  Shiites  in  particular  have  many  means 
of  evading  the  limitation  by  resorting  to  different  forms 
or  degrees  of  marriage,  which  will  be  enlarged  upon  in 
another  chapter. 

Mohammed  clearly  enjoins  equality  in  the  treatment  of 
the  various  wives  without  showing  partiality  to  any  one. 
That  he  realises,  however — probably  from  his  own  sad 
experience — the  difficulty  of  carrying  out  this  principle 
we  find  from  the  words  given  in  the  I28th  verse  of  the 
4th  Sura:  "Ye  can  by  no  means  carry  yourselves  equally 
between  women  in  all  respects,  although  ye  study  to  do 
so;  therefore  turn  not  from  a  wife  with  all  manner  of 
aversion,  nor  leave  her  like  one  in  suspense;  if  ye  agree 
and  fear  to  abuse  your  wives,  God  is  gracious  and  merci- 
ful ;  but  if  they  separate  God  will  satisfy  them  both  of  his 
abundance." 

Although,  therefore,  all  Moslem  husbands  try  to  fur- 
nish their  wives  with  equal  surroundings,  servants,  cloth- 
ing, etc.,  exceptions  must  arise.  The  human  failings  lead 
to  favouritism;  wives  of  different  rank  demand  different 
treatment,  and  the  obligation  of  the  husband  towards  a 
wife  of  another  religion  is  regarded  as  a  half  of  what  he 
owes  to  his  Mohammedan  wives.  The  Mohammedan 
men  are  forbidden  to  force  their  non-Mohammedan 
wives  to  fulfil  the  rites  of  the  Mohammedan  religion,  but 
they  have  the  right  to  demand  that  such  wives  shall 
abstain  from  acts  that  are  forbidden  by  the  Mohamme- 
dan religion,  as  drinking  wine,  frequenting  a  church  or 
synagogue,  or  going  out  unveiled.  The  husband  can  al- 
ways enforce  his  authority  in  these  respects  by  simply 
keeping  the  wife  locked  at  home. 

The  Koran  and  all  theological  teachers  regard  divorce 
very  lightly,  on  the  ground  that  the  divorced  parties  can 
soon  find  themselves  other  partners.  In  the  case  of  divorc- 
ing a  wife  it  is  forbidden  to  take  from  her  what  has  been 


THE   POSITION   OF  WOMEN  311 

given  to  her.  In  the  24th  verse  of  the  4th  Sura  we  read : 
"  If  ye  be  desirous  to  exchange  a  wife  for  another  wife, 
and  ye  have  already  given  one  of  them  a  talent,  take  not 
away  anything  therefrom;  will  ye  take  it  by  slandering 
her  and  doing  her  manifest  injustice?"  Once  admitting 
the  legality  of  divorce  for  trifling  reasons,  the  theologians, 
or  Moslem  commentators,  have  carried  this  license  much 
further. 

A  study  of  the  laws  governing  divorce  cannot  but  con- 
vince one  that  all  the  arguments  given  are  to  support  two 
conditions,  namely,  facilitation  of  divorce  for  men,  and 
difficulties  of  obtaining  the  same  for  women;  and  sec- 
ondly, protection  of  the  husband  from  any  attempt  on  the 
part  of  the  wife  to  get  him  to  support  a  child  about  his 
being  the  father  of  which  there  might  be  doubt.  In  view 
of  this  last  clause  a  certain  "  period  of  proof  "  is  appointed 
for  a  divorced  woman  before  she  may  marry  again.  All 
the  laws  concerning  divorce  fall  with  greatest  weight  on 
the  women.  //  is  not  only  polygamy  that  is  the  curse  of 
Mohammedan  countries,  but  the  facility  with  which  a 
husband  may  even  at  a  caprice  divorce  his  wife. 

In  regard  to  a  woman's  being  unfaithful  to  her  marriage 
vows,  the  Moslem  law  is  more  severe  than  the  Koran, 
though  the  latter  is  sufficiently  cruel,  as  we  find  in  the  4th 
Sura,  1 9th  verse:  "  If  any  of  your  women  be  guilty  of 
whoredom,  produce  four  witnesses  from  among  you 
against  them,  and  if  they  bear  witness  against  them  im- 
prison them  in  separate  apartments  until  death  release 
them,  or  God  afford  them  a  way  to  escape."  In  the  ad 
verse  of  the  24th  Sura  we  read:  "The  whore  and  whore- 
monger shall  ye  scourge  with  an  hundred  stripes,  and  let 
not  compassion  towards  them  prevent  you  from  executing 
the  judgment  of  God  if  ye  believe  in  God  and  the  last  day." 

The  laws  laid  down  by  theologians,  being  stricter  than 
those  of  the  Koran,  ordained  that  the  four  witnesses  hav- 


312         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

ing  testified  to  the  unchastity  of  a  married  woman  she  is 
to  be  stoned  to  death.  Even  the  details  are  described.  The 
woman  is  to  be  buried  in  the  ground  up  to  the  waist.  If 
her  guilt  has  been  proved  by  the  testimony  of  witnesses 
they  are  to  throw  the  first  stones.  If  she  herself  has  con- 
fessed, the  judge  who  pronounces  the  sentence  casts  the 
first  stone.  For  the  same  offence  in  an  unmarried  woman 
the  first  misdeed  is  punished  by  one  hundred  stripes,  the 
second  by  two  hundred  stripes  and  the  third  by  death. 

Time  has  of  course  softened  these  punishments.  We 
do  not  hear  of  stoning  an  adulteress,  but  the  spirit  remains, 
and  many  punishments  are  meted  out  within  the  walls  of 
the  harems  that  get  outside  only  in  whispers,  and  society 
and  the  authorities  "  look  through  their  fingers." 

As  recently  as  some  fifty  years  ago  women  were  thrown 
from  the  citadel  of  Tabriz  as  punishment  for  immorality. 
In  Shiraz,  within  five  hundred  paces  of  the  tomb  of  one  of 
Persia's  most  popular  classical  poets,  Saadi,  is  a  well  into 
which  women  used  to  be  thrown.  The  depth  of  this  well, 
according  to  a  European  physician  living  in  Shiraz,  is 
so  great  that  one  can  count  fifteen  before  a  stone  dropped 
down  touches'  the  first  irregularity  in  the  side  of  the  well. 
There  is  at  the  present  day  a  tower  in  Bokhara  that  is 
shown  to  travellers  as  the  place  from  which  women  were 
thrown  before  the  Russian  occupation  of  Transcaspia. 

Such  are  some  of  the  dumb  witnesses  of  women's  lot 
in  Mohammedan  lands,  and  though  time  and  advancing 
civilisation  have  made  such  public  executions  impossi- 
ble, it  does  not  follow  that  all  these  punishments  have  been 
abolished.  What  stories  could  the  Bosphorus  tell,  and 
other  places  affording  convenient  and  natural  means  of 
concealing  the  secrets  of  the  harem,  without  the  trouble 
of  building  towers  or  digging  wells! 

The  property  rights  of  women  are  stated  in  the  I2th, 
1 3th,  1 4th,  1 5th  and  i7$th  verses  of  the  4th  Sura.  I  shall 


THE   POSITION   OF  WOMEN  313 

quote  them  in  their  entirety,  as  these  form  the  basis  of  the 
laws  concerning  heredity,  a  more  detailed  examination 
of  which  would  occupy  too  much  space. 

Verse  12.  "God  hath  thus  commanded  you  concern- 
ing your  children.  A  male  shall  have  as  much  as  the 
share  of  two  females ;  but  if  they  be  females  only  and  above 
two  in  number  they  shall  have  two-thirds  parts  of  what 
the  deceased  shall  leave ;  and  if  there  be  but  one  she  shall 
have  the  half.  And  the  parents  of  the  deceased  shall  each 
have  a  sixth  part  of  what  he  shall  leave,  if  he  have  a  child, 
but  if  he  have  no  child  and  his  parents  be  his  heirs,  then 
the  mother  shall  have  the  third  part.  And  if  he  have 
brethren,  his  mother  shall  have  a  sixth  part,  after  the  lega- 
cies which  he  shall  bequeath  and  his  debts  be  paid.  Ye 
know  not  whether  your  parents  or  your  children  be  of 
greater  use  unto  you.  This  is  an  ordinance  of  God,  and 
God  is  knowing  and  wise." 

Verse  13.  "Moreover,  you  may  claim  half  of  what 
your  wives  shall  leave  if  they  have  no  issue;  but  if  they 
have  issue  then  ye  shall  have  the  fourth  part  of  what  they 
shall  leave,  after  the  legacies  which  they  shall  bequeath 
and  the  debts  shall  be  paid." 

Verse  14.  "They  also  shall  have  the  fourth  part  of 
what  you  shall  leave  in  case  you  have  no  issue ;  but  if  you 
have  issue  then  they  shall  have  the  eighth  part  of  what 
ye  shall  leave  after  the  legacies  which  ye  shall  bequeath 
and  the  debts  be  paid." 

Verse  15.  "And  if  a  man  or  woman's  substance  be 
inherited  by  a  distant  relation,  and  he  or  she  have  a 
brother  or  sister,  each  of  them  too  shall  have  a  sixth  part 
of  the  estate.  But  if  there  be  more  than  this  number  they 
shall  be  equal  sharers  in  a  third  part,  after  payment  of 
the  legacies  which  shall  be  bequeathed  and  the  debts 
without  prejudice  to  the  heirs." 

Verse  175.     "  But  if  there  be  two  sisters  they  shall  have 


3H         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

between  them  two-thirds  parts  of  what  he  shall  leave; 
and  if  there  be  several,  both  sisters  and  brothers,  a  male 
shall  have  as  much  as  the  portion  of  two  females.  God 
declareth  unto  you  these  precepts,  lest  ye  err:  and  God 
knoweth  all  things." 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
THE  POSITION  OF  WOMEN  IN  PERSIA 

Costumes  of  City  and  Village  Women — Beroun  and  Enderoun — Harem 
Servants — Occupation  of  Women — Superstitions — Excursions — Vis- 
iting Shrines — Education  of  Women — Betrothals — Weddings — Vari- 
ous Forms  of  Marriage — A  Wife  Agde  and  Sege — Monogamy  and 
the  Reason  for  its  Preponderance — Marriage  with  Slaves — Marriage 
— Marriages  with  Christians — Position  of  Christian  Wives  in  Har- 
ems— Marriage  of  Mohammedan  Women  with  non-Mohammedans 
Forbidden — Divorce  the  Husband's  Privilege — Uncertain  Position 
of  the  Woman  in  her  Husband's  House — Harem  Intrigues — Powers 
of  Persians  as  Husbands  and  Fathers. 

ON  entering  a  Persian  city,  the  European  is  first  of  all 
struck  with  the  sight  of  figures  swathed  in  dark  blue  with 
veils  over  their  faces,  and  below  the  blue  mantle  glimpses 
of  broad  sharwars  and  short  high-heeled  slippers  that 
flap  with  each  step,  and  cause  a  swaying,  tottering  gait. 
These  figures  are  Persian  women. 

It  is  difficult  to  imagine  a  more  uncomfortable  costume 
than  that  of  the  Persian  woman,  both  indoors  and  in  the 
street.  The  house  dress  consists  of  short  and  very  full 
skirts  hardly  reaching  the  knee.  The  fuller  the  skirts  are 
and  the  greater  number  of  them  worn,  the  more  "  chic  " 
the  wearer  is  considered.  Sometimes  under  these  skirts 
tight-fitting  drawers  are  worn  that  reach  to  the  ankle. 
More  often,  especially  in  summer,  the  legs  are  bare  down 
to  the  short  socks.  A  loose  blouse-like  shirt  is  worn  very 
short,  and  often  of  almost  transparent  material.  Over  this 
is  a  short  jacket,  open  in  front,  having  long  tight  sleeves. 
This  jacket  lends  itself  to  great  decoration  among  the  rich, 

315 


316         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

the  material  generally  being  of  velvet  or  silk  lavishly 
braided,  embroidered  or  trimmed  with  seed  pearls.  On 
the  head  is  a  simple  kerchief  adorned  with  fancy  aigrettes 
or  not,  according  to  the  social  position  of  the  woman.  A 
light  veil  of  muslin,  cambric  or  silk  is  generally  thrown 
over  all,  even  in  the  house.  The  hair  is  parted  smoothly, 
drawn  back  and  braided  in  many  fine  braids  and  left 
hanging  down  the  back.  Of  ornaments,  earrings,  brace- 
lets on  the  arms  and  ankles,  necklaces,  nose-rings  and  fin- 
ger-rings are  worn,  also  jewels  are  mounted  in  buckles  for 
belts.  Turquoise  and  carnelians  are  the  most  commonly 
worn,  as  they  are  considered  lucky  stones,  though  many 
harems  can  boast  of  magnificent  emeralds,  rubies  and 
pearls.  In  the  winter  a  long,  frocked  coat  of  cloth  or 
"  shawl "  is  worn  in  the  house.  The  Persian  shawl  mate- 
rial is  greatly  prized,  and  fine  specimens  are  handed  down 
in  a  family  as  "heirlooms." 

The  street  costume  consists  of  three  articles  worn  over 
the  house  dress.  The  full  skirts  are  first  tucked  into  long 
full  trousers,  to  each  leg  of  which  a  sock  of  the  same 
material  is  sewn.  Over  the  head  and  falling  to  the  feet  is 
worn  the  "  chadir,"  or  veil  or  mantle,  of  dark  blue.  Over 
this  about  the  forehead  is  fastened  a  long  narrow  strip 
of  cotton  about  the  breadth  of  a  towel,  that  falls  over  the 
face  riearly  to  the  ground.  Just  over  the  eyes  is  a  bit  of 
drawn  open-work.  In  the  hot  weather  this  costume  is 
stifling  and  uncomfortable,  and  at  the  best  of  times  the 
poor  women  can  see  little  through  the  embroideries. 

The  slippers  are  high-heeled  leather  ones,  turned  up 
at  the  toes,  and  so  short  that  they  oarely  reach  beyond  the 
middle  of  the  foot,  and  the  effort  made  to  keep  them  on 
makes  the  woman's  gait  more  of  a  shuffle  than  a  walk. 

In  this  costume  the  disguise  of  a  woman  is  so  perfect 
that  her  own  husband  can  hardly  recognise  her.  A  man 
will  rarely  be  seen  in  the  street  with  his  wife,  being  con- 


POSITION   OF  WOMEN    IN    PERSIA    317 

trary  to  Moslem  etiquette,  and  if  he  does  happen  to  ac- 
company her  he  will  never  walk  by  her  side,  but  either 
in  advance  or  behind  her. 

On  passing  a  European,  if  sure  that  none  of  her  co- 
religionists see  her,  a  woman,  particularly  if  she  be  young 
and  good-looking,  will  often  raise  her  veil,  from  under 
which  a  pair  of  dark  eyes  follow  the  stranger  with  a 
curious  gaze. 

Women  of  the  lower  class  wear  longer  skirts,  long 
trousers,  and  a  bit  of  muslin  or  calico  thrown  over  their 
head  as  veils. 

Powder  and  rouge  are  much  used,  and  the  eyes  and 
eyebrows  blackened,  the  latter  very  heavily,  and  are 
made  to  meet  over  the  nose.  In  former  years  most  women 
tattooed,  but  this  practice  has  gone  out  of  use. 

The  Persian,  be  he  poor  or  rich,  settled  or  nomadic,  has 
his  women  folk  more  or  less  isolated  and  his  dwelling 
divided  into  the  men's  and  women's  quarters. 

In  the  women's  part  of  the  house,  the  servants  are  all 
female,  with  the  exception  of  the  eunuchs,  and  possibly 
dwarfs.  The  eunuchs,  aside  from  acting  as  guards  and 
escorts  in  the  streets,  are  the  settlers  of  disputes,  and  act 
as  messengers  between  the  women  and  the  husband  when 
he  is  in  the  men's  apartments. 

In  the  harem  are  often  to  be  found  pages  of  from 
eleven  to  fifteen  years  of  age,  "gulaf-bacha"  boys,  often 
of  very  good  families,  who  are  placed  in  influential  Per- 
sian houses.  These  boys  often  serve  the  master  in  another 
capacity,  and  even  sometimes  the  ladies  also,  which  leads 
to  stories  of  the  darkest  and  most  scandalous  part  of  the 
harem  life. 

Each  wife  according  to  the  law  is  entitled  to  a  separate 
house  and  household.  This  is  not,  however,  always  found 
to  be  so  in  practice.  Occasionally  when  means  permit  the 
several  wives  have  quite  separate  residences.  Again,  one 


318         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

finds  separate  small  houses  in  one  large  courtyard,  or 
different  apartments  in  the  same  house. 

The  occupation  of  the  women  depends  upon  the  social 
position  of  the  husband.  In  the  poorer  families  the 
women  do  the  household  work  and  attend  to  the  milking 
and  dairy  work  generally.  The  field  work  is  done  en- 
tirely by  the  men.  To  be  just,  one  must  give  the  Persians 
the  credit  of  being  logical.  Acknowledging  the  woman  to 
be  the  weaker  vessel,  they  never  put  the  hard  physical 
work  upon  her,  and  so  the  women  of  the  lower  classes 
have  their  family  and  house  to  look  after,  while  those 
of  the  upper  classes  have  their  toilet,  visiting,  light 
needlework,  and,  in  rare  cases,  reading,  to  occupy  them. 
The  latter  kill  time  by  giving  their  attention  to  the  adorn- 
ment of  their  persons,  smoking,  eating  sweets,  listening 
to  story  tellers  and  musicians,  making  calls  and  going  to 
the  bath.  The  baths  are  the  nearest  approach  to  clubs 
that  they  have,  and  here  they  spend  hours,  dyeing  their 
hair  with  henna,  which  takes  hours,  and  in  the  meantime 
gossiping  with  their  acquaintances. 

When  making  calls  the  rich  ladies  go  in  carriages  or 
horseback,  riding  astride,  accompanied  by  eunuchs,  maids, 
and  men  servants.  The  poorer  classes  go  alone.  They 
have  considerable  liberty  in  going  out  for  calls  or  to  the 
bazaar,  and,  during  Muharram,  to  attend  the  "  tazie,"  or 
mystery  plays.  They  are  very  fond  also  of  visiting  shrines 
or  holy  places,  that  are  to  be  found  near  all  large  cities. 
It  is  said,  but  I  have  no  proof  of  it,  that  these  religious 
visits  are  often  masks  for  love  intrigues.  Near  the  shrines 
are  always  to  be  found  rooms  that  can  be  engaged  for  a 
day,  or  longer  or  shorter  time,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that 
Persian  ladies  sometimes  take  advantage  of  these  places, 
the  more  so  that  once  on  the  street  the  Persian  woman 
runs  little  risk  of  being  recognised  even  by  her  own  hus- 
band. They  also  love  to  go  to  physicians  to  talk  at  length 


POSITION   OF  WOMEN    IN    PERSIA    319 

of  their  ills,  and  beg  for  love  potions  or  some  beautifying 
elixir. 

The  education  of  the  Persian  woman  rarely  rises  to  any- 
thing higher  than  the  arts  of  reading  and  writing,  ac- 
quaintance with  the  prayers  and  poets  and  in  elegant  con- 
versation and  deportment  Singing,  dancing  and  music 
are  not  taught,  as  these  are  not  approved  of  by  the  Koran 
nor  by  etiquette,  and  special  professional  dancers  and 
musicians  are  for  hire. 

The  chief  characteristic  of  the  Persian  woman  is  super- 
stition, which  is  quite  comprehensible  in  a  people  whose 
calendar  possesses  lucky  and  unlucky  days.  They  all  firmly 
believe  in  charms  and  the  effects  of  the  "  good  "  or  "  evil 
eye,"  especially  in  love  affairs.  To  keep  the  love  of  their 
husbands  they  often  resort  to  wearing  strange  amulets, 
as,  for  instance,  the  claws  of  hyenas,  or  an  amulet  fastened 
about  the  arm  just  below  the  shoulder  that  contains  some 
written  verses  from  the  Koran.  Jealousy  often  leads  one 
wife  to  give  to  another  wife  remedies  that,  according  to 
their  belief,  will  render  her  childless. 

Maidens  wishing  to  get  married  visit  the  tomb  of  some 
sacred  woman,  usually  the  sister  of  one  of  the  imams. 
There  are  many  such  tombs,  and  most  of  them  are  con- 
sidered as  the  patrons  of  virgins.  Marriages  are  con- 
tracted very  early.  The  rich  may  marry  their  sons  at  the 
age  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  to  temporary  wives,  "  sege,"  and 
at  the  age  of  nineteen  to  twenty  to  permanent  wives  or 
"  agde."  Sometimes,  owing  to  family  reasons,  one  hears 
of  a  youth  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  married  to  a  girl  much 
older.  The  marriageable  age  for  a  girl  is  fixed  at  nine. 

It  is  not  infrequent  to  meet  in  Persia,  particularly  in 
the  southern  parts,  women  of  twenty-eight  or  thirty  who 
are  grandmothers.  Of  love  there  can  be,  of  course,  no 
thought  The  more  so  that  love  as  a  lofty  moral  senti- 
ment as  we  understand  it  is  unknown  to  the  Persians. 


320        LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

Love  as  sung  by  the  poets  of  the  golden  age  is  a  sensuous 
passion,  and  one  not  always  inspired  by  women. 

The  marriage  contract  is  always  made  out  in  Arabic 
according  to  a  set  form,  and  for  which  the  consent  of  both 
parties  is  obligatory.  An  auspicious  day  is  chosen — for 
during  the  month  of  Muharram,  during  fasts,  and  when 
the  moon  is  in  the  sign  of  the  scorpion,  no  marriages  can 
be  performed.  Two  witnesses  are  demanded,  but  their 
absence  does  not  hinder  the  ceremony,  providing  all  the 
other  formalities  are  observed.  If  one  or  both  of  the  con- 
tracting parties  be  minors,  the  contract  is  signed  for  them 
by  the  father,  brother,  or  guardian.  Such  contracts  are 
as  binding  as  if  made  out  between  persons  who  are  of  age, 
and  they  cannot  be  annulled  when  the  parties  reach  their 
majority  on  the  ground  of  its  having  been  made  out  when 
they  were  minors. 

Slaves  may  marry  a  slave,  or  a  free  woman,  but  always 
with  the  consent  of  their  masters. 

Although  the  Shariat  regards  as  legal  only  such  mar- 
riages as  are  contracted  by  the  free  will  of  both  parties, 
the  consent  of  parents  and  guardians  is  sufficient  in  the 
case  of  very  early  marriages.  This  is  made  the  more 
binding  that  the  influence  of  parents  over  their  children 
is  enormous.  They  can  even  sell  their  children  into 
slavery,  which  frequently  happens  among  nomadic  tribes 
without  being  considered  disgraceful.  If  often  happens 
that  parents  betroth  children  who  are  yet  in  the  cradle. 
Sweetmeats  are  eaten — "  Sheerenie  huran  " — correspond- 
ing to  our  betrothal  ceremony,  and  the  given  promise  is 
sacredly  carried  out  when  the  children  grow  up. 

Marriages  are  generally  arranged  in  the  following 
way:  A  man,  becoming  enamoured  of  the  beauty  of  a 
damsel  as  described  to  him  by  a  sister  or  other  female 
friend,  obtains,  through  women  again,  the  consent  of  the 
girl's  father.  The  latter  if  favourably  inclined  towards 


the  match  will,  in  most  cases,  give  the  love-sick  suitor  the 
chance  of  seeing  the  lady's  face.  Then  follow  the  con- 
ditions of  the  marriage  contract,  the  sum  to  be  paid  to  the 
bride's  mother  by  the  suitor — "  Sherie  bega  " — trosseau, 
etc.  Then  friends  are  invited  to  eat  sweets  and  the  com- 
ing marriage  is  announced. 

On  the  appointed  day,  the  groom  and  his  friends  re- 
pair to  the  bride's  house — the  men  in  the  beroun,  the 
women  in  the  enderoun — and  the  marriage  contract  is 
drawn  up,  with  the  bride's  representative  to  answer  for 
her.  Occasionally  she,  herself  veiled,  stands  behind  a 
curtain,  and  the  mullah  in  repeating  the  formula  turns 
in  the  direction  where  he  has  been  told  she  is,  but  without 
seeing  her.  Then  a  prayer  is  read,  and  a  few  words  said 
as  to  the  sacredness  and  obligations  of  the  marriage  vows, 
and  in  about  ten  minutes  all  is  over. 

Then  begin  the  entertainments,  lasting  from  two  to  ten 
days,  according  to  the  wealth  and  position  of  the  parties. 
All  this  time  the  young  people  do  not  see  each  other  and 
the  bride  remains  in  her  father's  house.  The  bride's 
trousseau  is  taken  in  great  pomp  with  music  to  the  bride- 
groom's house.  Long  lines  of  men  with  trays  on  their 
heads  carry  such  articles  as  crystal,  lamps,  etc.  Horses 
and  mules  are  loaded  with  boxes  containing  the  remainder 
of  the  trousseau,  and  all  is  brought  into  the  enderoun  and 
shown  to  the  assembled  guests.  The  taking  of  the  bride- 
groom's presents  to  the  bride's  house  is  accompanied  by 
the  same  ceremonies.  On  the  last  day  of  the  celebrations, 
the  bride  is  escorted  at  night  with  music  and  torches  to 
her  husband's  house,  where,  as  on  the  day  of  signing  the 
contract,  various  rites  not  enjoined  by  the  Shariat  are  ob- 
served. 

According  to  the  Shariat  there  are  two  forms  of  mar- 
riage, either  the  permanent  one,  when  a  wife  is  known 
as  an  "  agde,"  or  a  temporary  arrangement  with  the 


322        LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

length  of  time  from  an  hour  to  ninety-nine  years  indi- 
cated. Such  wives  are  termed  seges,  and  the  number  of 
such  wives  that  a  man  may  have  is  unlimited.  As  both 
forms  of  marriage  are  considered  equally  binding,  the 
children  of  both  have  equal  rights.  By  establishing  the 
institution  of  "sege"  the  Shariat  gets  around  the  limita- 
tions of  four  wives,  for  the  "  sege  "  who  is  contracted  for 
ninety-nine  years  passes  from  the  sege  du  jure  to  the 
agde  de  facto.  In  entering  upon  the  permanent  marriage 
with  one  who  was  a  temporary  wife  the  man  is  obliged 
only  to  pay  the  woman  the  sum  named  in  the  contract  as 
due  her  after  the  end  of  the  term.  The  sum  to  be  paid 
is  decided  by  common  consent,  as  the  Shariat  says  nothing 
of  the  minimum  or  maximum  amount  to  be  given.  If 
the  "  sege "  wife  leaves  her  husband  beforb  the  time 
named  in  the  contract,  she  forfeits  all  right  to  payment. 
Frequently  the  poor  women  are  obliged  to  do  this  owing 
to  the  cruel  treatment  of  the  husbands,  who  take  this 
means  of  avoiding  payment. 

Availing  themselves  of  this  privilege,  Persians  who 
spend  some  time  in  distant  cities,  where  they  have  business 
or  where  they  have  gone  on  a  pilgrimage,  enter  into  tem- 
porary matrimony.  In  cities  like  Meshed,  where  many 
thousand  pilgrims  congregate,  a  flourishing  business  is 
carried  on  by  mullahs,  who  have  a  large  number  of  wo- 
men living  in  their  houses  ready  to  be  married.  The 
mullah  on  finding  a  candidate  for  his  protege's  hand  gets 
paid  for  the  marriage  contract  as  well  as  for  her  board 
while  she  lived  in  his  house.  At  the  end  of  the  term,  and 
having  received  from  her  husband  the  promised  sum,  the 
woman  returns  to  the  house  of  her  spiritual  benefactor 
and  impatiently  awaits  the  expiration  of  the  four  months 
that  must  pass  before  a  new  contract  can  be  concluded. 
This  term  is,  however,  not  always  as  strictly  observed  as 
it  should  be.  The  Shariat  permits  a  woman's  marrying 


POSITION  OF  WOMEN   IN   PERSIA    323 

only  three  times,  but  the  obliging  mullahs  are  always 
ready  to  overlook  such  a  small  matter. 

Polygamy  cannot  be  said  to  be  the  universal  custom 
in  Persia.  The  majority  have  but  one  wife,  and  as  living 
becomes  more  expensive,  the  number  of  those  able  to  sup- 
port more  than  one  family  decreases.  The  nomads,  repre- 
senting about  one-quarter  of  the  inhabitants  of  Persia,  the 
agricultural  class,  small  shopkeepers  and  the  poorer  peo- 
ple generally  content  themselves  with  one  wife.  The 
higher  nobility  also  give  many  examples  of  monogamy, 
as  in  many  cases  they  are  married  to  princesses  and  there- 
fore do  not  dare  to  take  other  wives.  A  man  who  volun- 
tarily or  by  order  of  the  shah  marries  a  princess,  divorces 
all  his  former  wives.  As  to  the  khans,  princes,  land- 
owners, sons  of  semi-independent  chiefs,  and  rich  mer- 
chants, these  are  nearly  all  polygamists. 

The  laws  governing  the  treatment  of  the  various  wives, 
as  given  in  the  i28th  verse  of  the  4th  Sura  and  quoted 
above,  have  done  much  to  decrease  polgamy.  Those  wish- 
ing to  live  according  to  the  Shariat  are  obliged  to  keep 
up  separate  households  for  each  wife  and  to  have  in  every 
way  the  material  conditions  of  all  the  wives  equal.  In 
many  old  Persian  harems  this  is  carried  out  with  pedantic 
exactness,  but  with  the  extravagance  of  the  Persian 
ladies,  such  households  can  only  be  maintained  by  the 
very  rich. 

Aside  from  the  wives  agde  and  sege,  who  may  also  be 
taken  from  among  the  slaves,  it  is  permissible  to  have 
simple  concubines  to  any  number.  This  is  done  in  follow- 
ing the  example  of  Mohammed,  who  limited  himself 
to  nine  wives,  but  added  concubines.  This  is  to  be  under- 
stood from  33d  Sura :  "  O  Prophet,  we  have  allowed  thee 
thy  wives  unto  whom  thou  hast  given  their  dower,  and 
also  the  slaves  which  thy  right  hand  possessed!  of  the  booty 
which  God  had  granted  thee,  and  the  daughters  of  thy 


324         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

uncles,  and  the  daughters  of  thy  aunts,  both  on  thy  father's 
side  and  on  thy  mother's  side,  who  have  fled  with  thee  to 
Mecca,  and  any  other  believing  woman  if  she  give  herself 
unto  the  Prophet,  in  case  the  Prophet  desireth  to  take  her 
to  wife.  This  is  a  peculiar  privilege  granted  unto  thee 
above  the  rest  of  the  true  believers." 

A  marriage,  with  slaves  may  be  also  as  a  permanent 
wife  agde  or  as  a  sege,  and  is  in  every  detail  similar  to  con- 
tracts made  with  free  women,  with  the  one  condition  that 
if  the  man  already  has  a  wife  who  is  a  free  woman  her 
consent  is  necessary^  to  the  new  marriage.  A  slave  woman 
on  marrying  her  master  still  remains  in  bondage  unless  the 
marriage  contract  contains  a  clause  that  declares  her  free. 
Otherwise,  she  can  only  hope  to  obtain  her  freedom  after 
her  husband's  death,  and  in  case  she  has  a  son,  on  whom 
lies  the  obligation  of  buying  his  mother's  freedom  from 
his  inheritance.  If  he  be  unable  to  raise  the  whole  of  the 
necessary  sum,  the  mother  tries  to  earn  the  balance.  If 
the  child  born  to  the  slave  woman  dies  during  her 
husband's  lifetime  she  remains  a  slave  and  can  be 
sold. 

There  remains  one  other  form  of  marriage  existing 
that  is  not  given  either  in  the  Koran  or  the  Shariat  and  yet 
is  practised  in  Persia.  This  is  a  contract  between  bache- 
lors and  women  who  are  deprived  of  the  hope  of  becom- 
ing mothers,  "yaese" — hopeless.  In  this  case  the  reli- 
gious ceremony  performed  by  a  mullah  is  unnecessary. 
A  certain  formula  is  simply  repeated  by  both,  naming  the 
sum  decided  by  mutual  consent  and  the  duration  of  the 
term  of  marriage — from  hours  or  days,  to  months1 — upon 
which  they  have  agreed.  At  the  end  of  the  term,  the 
couple  separate  and  the  "  yaese  "  is  again  free  to  marry 
in  the  same  way.  Such  partnerships  are  looked  upon  as 
being  quite  honourable. 

As  to  marriages  between  persons  professing  different 
religions,  the  men  are  permitted  to  marry  wives  of  any 


POSITION   OF  WOMEN    IN    PERSIA    325 

faith  except  idolaters.  This  is  based  on  the  yth  verse  of 
the  5th  Sura:  "And  ye  are  also  allowed  to  marry  free 
women  that  are  believers,  and  also  free  women  of  those 
who  have  received  the  scriptures  before  you." 

The  Mohammedan  women,  however,  are  forbidden  on 
pain  of  death  to  marry  anybody  but  Mohammedans.  In- 
stances where  Moslems  have  married  Christian  women 
are  far  from  being  rare.  Taking  advantage  of  the  ignor- 
ance prevailing  in  Europe  regarding  the  real  life  in  Per- 
sia, many  have  succeeded  in  persuading  European  girls  to 
marry  them.  The  fate  of  a  Christian  woman  getting  in  this 
way  into  the  Persian  harem  is  almost  without  any  excep- 
tion insufferable.  She  is  treated  with  contempt  and  dislike 
by  all  the  other  women,  and  she  is  obliged  to  take  her  posi- 
tion as  the  wife  of  a  Mohammedan :  that  is,  to  go  out  in  the 
street  veiled  from  head  to  foot,  and  to  give  up  all  the 
freedom  she  has  been  accustomed  to  enjoy.  I  have  known 
of  more  than  one  such  unfortunate  being,  who  has  suc- 
ceeded in  escaping  to  the  protection  of  a  foreign  legation 
or  consulate,  or  at  least  in  giving  information  of  their 
condition.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  almost  hopeless  to  at- 
tempt to  help  such  women  to  escape,  for  it  is  impossible 
to  gain  access  into  th'e  "  holy  of  holies "  of  the  Moslem 
world,  the  enderoun.  tGreat  skill,  patience  and  diplo- 
macy sometimes  lead  to  success.  Two  Armenian  girls 
were  in  this  way  rescued  from  harems  in  Tabriz;  but 
generally  the  women  tire  of  the  conflict,  and  end  by  em- 
bracing Islamism  and  are  forever  lost  to  their  homes. 

One  European  woman  who  became  a  Moslem  won  for 
herself  a  certain  position  t  in  Teheran  society.  She  was 
a  French  flower  girl  from  the  Quartier  Latin  in  Paris 
and  found  her  way  to  Teheran  in  the  twenties  of  the  last 
century.  Here  she  married,  became  Mohammedan,  and 
finally  as  a  widow  received  a  considerable  pension  and 
was  known  as  "  Hadji  Abbas  Hanum  "  (Madame  Hadji 
Abbas) .  She  died  in  Teheran  in  1 88 1  at  a  very^  great  age. 


326        LIFE  IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

The  Persians  keep  a  jealous  watch  on  their  women,  that 
there  should  be  no  chance  of  their  breaking  the  command- 
ment by  marrying  unbelievers.  When  such  cases  do  occur, 
both  parties  are  in  danger  of  death.  Not  many  years  ago, 
a  fanatical  crowd  killed  an  Armenian  who  had  married 
a  Mohammedan  girl,  and  his  body  lay  a  long  time  un- 
buried  in  the  street.  The  woman  was  stoned  to  death. 

The  only  way  of  escape  is  by  promising  to  espouse 
Islamism,  and  the  promise  has  to  be  kept.  Renegades  of 
this  kind  are  often  to  be  found  in  Persia,  and  they  are 
most  frequently  Russian  subjects.  Some  of  these  men 
manage  to  return  in  time  to  their  own  country,  others 
remain  Persians  for  life.  The  fear  of  such  marriages 
makes  Persians  very  unwilling  to  have  their  women  work 
in  Christian  families,  and  it  is  only  in  a  few  places  where 
there  are  many  Europeans,  and  the  people  have  become 
less  fanatical,  that  it  is  possible  to  induce  Mohammedan 
women  to  work  in  Christian  houses. 

The  fact  of  polygamy  being  comparatively  uncommon 
in  Persia  does  not,  however,  make  the  woman's  lot  any 
easier,  owing  to  the  facility  with  which  her  husband  can 
divorce  her.  This  "  Damocles  sword  "  is  forever  hanging 
over  the  head  of  the  poor  woman.  Anyone  living  in  Per- 
sia is  struck  by  the  frequency  with  which  men  change 
wives.  That  is  to  say,  they  divorce  one  wife  and  marry 
another,  often  simply  because  the  years  had  begun  to  tell 
on  their  former  life's  companion.  "  While  I  was  young 
and  my  husband  was  poor,  I  was  good  in  his  eyes,  now 
I  am  growing  old,  and  I  have  no  sons,  only  daughters, 
and  my  husband  has  become  rich,  he  does  not  need  me 
any  more."  This  is  the  bitter  plaint  that  I  have  heard 
from  more  than  one  poor  woman.  With  some  variations 
in  the  details  this  is  indeed  an  oft-repeated  tale.  A  poor 
man  marries  a  poor  girl.  He  gets  on  in  life  and  arrives 
at  a  position  where  he  could  make  a  better  match.  His 


POSITION   OF  WOMEN    IN   PERSIA    327 

means,  however,  do  not  yet  permit  of  his  keeping  up  two 
households,  so  he  divorces-  the  humble  wife  who  was 
good  enough  for  his  poor  days  and  marries  one  fitting 
his  present  condition. 

The  forms  of  divorce,  "tellyak,"  are  various  (tellyak- 
el-baien,  tellyak-el-redji,  tellyak-el  uddet,  etc.),  and 
differ  in  their  results  and  in  the  formalities  with  which 
they  are  accompanied.  For  instance,  under  the  form 
known  as  "  tellyak-el-baien  "  the  husband  cannot  remarry 
the  divorced  wife.  In  the  form  known  as  "redji"  he 
reserves  to  hims'elf  this  right.  In  the  case  of  the  divorce 
"  uddet "  he  can  also  take  advantage  of  this  right,  but 
only  after  a  certain  lapse  of  time.  Not  going  into  the 
details  governing  each  of  these  forms,  I  will  merely  men- 
tion the  cases  where  divorce  can  be  obtained. 

1.  The  divorce  that  follows  the  termination  of  the 
marriage  contract  with  a  sege  wife. 

2.  Divorce  by  mutual  consent. 

3.  Divorce  by  the  desire  of  one  of  the  parties,  based 
on  the  same  grounds  as  those  that  govern  divorce  in  Euro- 
pean countries,  with  this  exception,  that  it  is  far  more 
difficult  for  the  woman  to  get  a  divorce  than  for  the  man. 

4.  Divorce  as  claimed  on  account  of  one  of  the  parties 
adopting  another  religion,  or  if  the  marriage  was  based 
upon  deceit,  as  if,  for  instance,  a  slave  had  given  himself 
out  as  being  a  free  man  and  had  married  a  free-born 
woman. 

5.  Divorce  by  desire  of  the  husband.    This  is  the  form 
most  often  resorted  to,  and  is  exceedingly  easy  to  obtain. 

6.  Divorce  given  to  the  wife  by  the  husband,  under 
which  condition  he  pays  her  a  certain  sum. 

A  woman  may  obtain  a  divorce  against  her  husband's 
will  only  in  very  exceptional  circumstances.  The  husband 
can,  on  the  other  hand,  at  any  moment  free  himself  of  his 
wife,  even  against  her  will,  on  condition  of  his  paying  her 


328         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

a  certain  sum,  and  taking  charge  of  the  children  that 
belong  to  him  after  the  second  year.  The  divorced  pair 
may  remarry  as  many  as  three  times,  after  which  in  order 
to  marry  for  the  fourth  time  the  woman  must  first  marry 
another  man,  and  only  on  being  divorced  from  him  can  she 
marry  her  former  husband  again.  Sometimes  the  literal 
fulfilment  of  this  law  is  evaded  by  appealing  to  a  friend, 
who  consents  to  go  through  the  form  of  marriage  cere- 
mony in  the  presence  of  the  mullah,  and  then  without 
leaving  the  room  he  declares  that  he  divorces  his  newly 
wedded  wife.  After  a  certain  period  she  is  considered 
free  to  marry  her  own  husband ! 

The  children  of  all  wives,  be  they  agde,  sege,  or  slaves, 
have  equal  rights.  The  child  of  a  sege  is  regarded  as 
legitimate  if  born  not  later  than  ten  months  after  the  ex- 
piration of  the  term  of  her  marriage.  The  laws  governing 
the  parentage  of  children  born  of  a  slave  are  given  in 
great  detail.  In  difficult  cases,  where  owing  to  the  change 
of  owners  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  father  of  the 
child,  the  question  is  settled  by  drawing  lots. 

I  once  had  the  opportunity  of  becoming  acquainted 
with  the  sad  lot  of  the  Persian  women.  A  Mohammedan 
woman  who  came  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  foreign 
power  appealed  to  her  legation.  This  was  probably  the 
first  case  that  a  Persian  woman  appealed  before  a  Euro- 
pean court.  She  entered  wrapped  in  her  "chadir,"  or 
veil,  and  seated  herself  on  the  floor.  Near  her  were  seated 
women  who  had  been  summoned  as  witnesses  from  both 
sides.  At  first  she  was  evidently  embarrassed  and  spoke 
in  so  low  a  voice  as  to  be  scarcely  heard.  As  she  became 
accustomed  to  her  surroundings,  her  courage  rose,  and 
finally  throwing  back  her  veil  she  spoke  freely  and  with 
a  logic  and  eloquence  that  astonished  us  all.  She  seemed 
to  be  not  more  than  sixteen  or  seventeen  years  old,  but  no 


POSITION   OF  WOMEN   IN   PERSIA    329 

European  woman  in  her  position  and  of  more  than  her  age 
could  have  defended  her  case  better  than  she  did.  Quite 
unconsciously  to  herself,  she  laid  before  us  the  whole  dark 
drama  of  a  Persian  woman's  existence.  All  that  she 
pleaded  for  was  that  her  husband  grant  her  a  divorce 
without  any  payment  or  further  support.  The  husband, 
a  fanatical  old  Persian,  was  determined  not  to  give  up  his 
rights,  and  as  her  claims  could  not  be  supported  by  the 
Shariat,  there  was  no  help  for  her.  What  her  final  fate 
was,  I  never  knew. 

Although  polygamy,  as  shown  above,  is  almost  oftener 
the  exception  than  the  rule,  the  condition  of  women,  owing 
to  the  ease  with  which  their  husbands  may  divorce  them, 
and  the  difficulty  with  which  they  can  obtain  freedom,  is 
none  the  better.  They  are  always  in  fear  of  divorce,  or  of 
a  rival  that  will  lead  to  it.  Of  course,  in  Persia  as  else- 
where, there  are  cases  where  the  man  is5  "  under  the 
slipper"  of  his  wife,  but  I  doubt  if  such  cases  are  not 
oftener  due  to  outside  influence,  as  family  or  money  pres- 
sure, rather  than  to  personal  predominance.  The  hus- 
band's attitude  toward  his  wife  or  wives  is  de  jure  and 
de  facto  that  of  lord  and  master — "  aga." 

In  the  first  place  the  husband  holds  over  his  wife  the 
fear  of  divorce;  in  the  second,  according  to  the  teaching 
of  the  Shariat  and  Oriental  etiquette,  the  husband  regards 
his  wife  not  as  his  life  companion,  the  sharer  of  all  his 
joys  and  sorrows,  but  as  his  property,  something  belong- 
ing to  him.  The  wife  knows  this  very  well.  So  long  as 
she  is  young  and  good-looking,  she  can  hold  her  husband's 
affection,  but  in  Persia  women  age  early.  At  thirty  she 
has  passed  her  prime,  and  she  realises  the  uncertainty  of 
her  tenure.  From  these  circumstances  arise  the  two  pas- 
sions of  the  Persian  woman:  to  keep  her  beauty,  and  to 
prepare  for  a  "  rainy  day."  The  first  leads  her  to  buy 


330         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM    EAST 

cosmetics  and  to  seek  for  talismans,  etc.;  the  second  to 
coax  her  husband  to  buy  her  shawls,  ornaments,  and  also 
to  hoard  all  money  that  comes  her  way. 

The  condition  of  the  several  wives  is  of  course  even 
worse.  It  is  impossible  for  Europeans  to  wholly  enter 
into  a  knowledge  of  their  intimate  relations,  but  we  know 
enough  of  the  jealousy  and  heart-burn  that  lead  to  some 
of  the  darkest  pages  in  the  sad  drama  of  harem  life.  Al- 
though the  Koran  decrees  absolute  equality  in  the  hus- 
band's treatment  of  his  several  wives,  this  is  totally  im- 
possible, as  even  Mohammed  himself  confesses.  One  of 
the  greatest  sources  of  trouble  is  the  absence  of  children 
or  the  birth  of  only  daughters.  The  birth  of  a  son  may  at 
once  change  the  position  of  the  humblest  wife  and  make 
her  the  favourite.  The  head  wife  generally  keeps  the 
others  in  subjection,  and  influences  the  husband's  attitude 
towards  them.  It  often  happens  that  when  the  chief  wife 
feels  that  her  power  over  her  husband  is  passing  with  her 
youth,  she  continues  her  influence  over  him  by  selecting 
other  wives  for  him  and  thus  by  presenting  them  to  him 
maintains  her  position  while  making  a  bonne  mine  a 
mauvais  jeu. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  there  must  be  constant 
jealousy,  distrust  and  suspicion  among  the  wives,  who  keep 
watch  over  each  other,  and  especially  over  their  children. 
This  latter  precaution  is  not  caused  by  imaginary  fears — » 
dark  stories  could  be  told  of  crimes  committed  by  barren 
wives  towards  other  wives  expecting  to  become  mothers 
or  towards  the  sons  born  to  these  rivals.  Poison  is  often 
'resorted  to  in  the  harems,  and  advantage  is  taken  of  chol- 
era, when  the  symptoms  caused  by  arsenic  and  other 
poisons  may  easily  pass  for  that  disease.  Owing  to  the 
inaccessibility  of  the  harems,  suspicion  can  never  be  fol- 
lowed up  by  investigations. 

Once  a  young  woman  came  to  me  to  complain  of  her 


POSITION   OF  WOMEN   IN   PERSIA    331 

husband,  who  had  taken  a  third  young  wife  and  had 
driven  her,  the  first,  into  the  street.  During  the  exami- 
nation that  followed  I  endeavoured  to  get  the  husband 
to  at  least  pay  his  wife  the  sum  of  money  to  which  she 
had  the  legal  right.  The  husband  was  a  very  respect- 
able man,  and  in  answer  to  my  arguments  he  suddenly 
exclaimed,  "Don't  try  to  defend  her,  Sahib,  she  is  not 
worth  it;  she  has  poisoned  both  the  children  of  my  other 
wives ! " 

The  power  of  the  men  as  husbands  and  fathers  is  enor- 
mous. The  Koran  gives  them  the  right  to  administer 
corporal  punishment  to  their  wives,  and  the  Shariat  con- 
firms it  and  even  upholds  him  guiltless  in  certain  cases 
of  the  murder  of  his  wife. 

De  jure  of  course  the  husband  has  no  right,  except  in 
the  one  instance,  to  take  his  wife's  life,  and  any  Persian 
with  whom  you  may  speak  will  hotly  contest  what  I  have 
said.  But  facts  are  to  the  contrary:  not  only  the  husband 
but  often  the  eldest  of  the  family  will  take  the  life  of  wife, 
or  sister,  if  he  considers  she  deserves  it. 

Nothing  is  so  humiliating  to  a  Persian,  and  so  excites 
him,  as  the  slightest  sign  of  not  only  actual  indiscretion  on 
the  part  of  the  women  of  his  household,  but  even  an  at- 
tempt on  their  part  to  deviate  from  the  strict  barriers  that 
surround  them.  The  sense  of  duty,  morality  and  patriot- 
ism is  foreign  to  the  Persian's  character,  but  where  the 
reputation  of  his  womenkind  is  concerned,  the  Persian  is 
very  sensitive.  This  becomes  a  point  of  honour,  not  only 
to  the  husband  or  male  relatives  of  the  women  in  ques- 
tion, but  to  every  man,  as  each  true  believer  for  some  rea- 
son seems  to  regard  himself  as  the  guardian  of  female 
chastity.  To  prove  my  point,  I  can  cite  one  or  two  in- 
stances that  came  within  my  personal  observation. 

The  summer  resort  of  the  Russian  legation  is  situated 
some  six  miles  outside  of  the  city  of  Teheran  in  the  village 


332 

of  Zergende.  In  the  year  1880  an  inhabitant  of  that  vil- 
lage shot  his  sister,  whom  he  suspected  of  improper  con- 
duct.  Everyone  knew  of  this  murder,  but  no  one  had  the 
right  to  interfere  nor  even  to  inform  the  authorities  of 
what,  in  the  eyes  of  public  opinion,  was  a  deed  that  the 
brother  was  justified  in  committing.  In  the  same  year 
a  similar  case  occurred  in  the  small  village  of  Naamat- 
Abad,  where  Europeans  and  Persians  go  in  the  summer 
months.  A  Persian  khan  became  acquainted  with  one 
of  the  village  women,  who  from  time"  time  went  secretly 
to  his  house.  One  day  a  man  in  no  way  related  to  her 
discovered  their  secret.  Lying  in  wait  at  the  khan's 
door,  he  stabbed  the  woman  to  death  when  she  came  out. 
In  this  case  they  went  so  far  as  to  arrest  the  man,  but  he 
was  permitted  to  "  escape  "  and  continued  to  live  unmo- 
lested. 

I  knew  of  another  case  where  a  Persian  woman  was 
brought  to  the  house  of  a  man  in  a  bag  in  which  straw  is 
usually  carried,  and  on  its  being  known,  she  too  was 
killed  by  a  Persian  who  was  a  stranger  to  her. 

Instances  of  this  kind  are  very  frequent.  In  spite  of 
such  dangers,  in  spite  of  the  Shariat,  and  the  thick  walls 
of  the  harem,  women  often  manage  to  betray  their  hus- 
bands. In  moments  of  frankness  and  through  satirical 
folk-stories,  one  can  see  that  this  is  the  case  owing  to  the 
absence  of  anything  like  a  sense  of  honour,  or  apprecia- 
tion of  the  sacred  duties  of  the  marriage  bond.  But 
rather  than  condemn,  one  wonders,  in  view  of  the  low 
plane  on  which  the  Koran  and  Shariat  place  women,  that 
there  should  be  so  many  instances  of  true  love  and  fidelity 
on  the  part  of  Persian  women  towards  their  husbands. 
And  such  instances  also  are  very  many.  I  will  cite  one 
case  that  took  place  in  1861  and  is  given  by  Brugsch  in 
his  "Reise  nach  Persien."  Passing  through  the  streets 
of  Teheran  one  day,  a  young  Persan  caught  a  glimpse  of 


333 

the  face  of  a  woman  who  in  arranging  her  draperies  lifted 
her  veil  for  a  moment.  The  beauty  of  the  face  was  such 
that  the  young  man  fell  violently  in  love,  or  to  use  the  Per- 
sian expression,  "his  heart  turned  into  a  kebab"  (roast 
meat) .  He  followed  the  destroyer  of  his  peace  and  dis- 
covered that  she  was  the  wife  of  a  rich  merchant.  With 
the  help  of  money,  he  got  an  old  woman  to  entice  the  lady 
• — who  had  no  suspicion  of  the  passion  she  had  aroused — 
to  her  house.  Once  there,  the  poor  creature  could 
neither  leave  nor  let  her  husband  know  of  the  treachery 
to  which  she  had  been  subjected. 

Rather  than  submit  to  the  caresses  of  the  stranger,  she 
poisoned  herself  with  opium,  a  drug  that  many  Persians, 
being  in  the  habit  of  taking  daily  in  small  doses,  carry  with 
them.  The  husband  succeeded  in  tracing  his  wife,  but 
found  only  her  corpse.  The  author  of  the  tragedy  was 
arrested  and  sentenced  to  execution  by  beheading.  The 
sentence  was  to  be  carried  out  in  one  of  the  most  populous 
squares  of  Teheran.  When  the  executioner  began  his 
preparations,  he  hesitated,  whether  from  a  feeling  of  pity 
or  because  he  was  a  novice,  no  one  knows.  However  that 
may  be,  his  hesitation  was  noticed  by  a  "lootie  "  (huli- 
gan,  loose  character)  in  the  crowd,  who  offered  his  serv- 
ices as  executioner  for  the  sum  of  one  kran,  about  ten 
cents!  He  cut  off  the  man's  head,  and  three  day  later 
he  himself  was  sentenced  to  having  his  right  hand  cut  off 
for  taking  upon  himself  the  office  of  executioner.  The 
old  woman  who  was  the  accomplice  in  the  crime  was 
thrown  down  from  a  high  tower. 

The  power  of  a  man  is  great  not  only  as  a  husband,  but 
as  a  father  as  well.  During  his  lifetime  the  property  of 
his  son  is  considered  his.  Among  the  higher  classes,  sons 
treat  their  fathers  with  great  veneration,  not  even  daring 
to  seat  themselves  nor  to  smoke  in  their  presence  without 
permission. 


334         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

The  women  have  little  influence  as  mothers,  especially 
over  the  sons.  Among  the  lower  classes,  the  mothers 
nurse  their  children  until  the  age  of  two  or  more  years. 
Among  the  higher  classes,  a  wet  nurse  is  at  once  taken, 
for  the  mothers  prefer  being  free  to  bear  children  rather 
than  to  nurse  them,  as  the  mother  of  sons  has  the  most 
hope  of  holding  her  husband's  affections.  When  a  wet 
nurse  is  taken,  she  is  honoured  almost  as  a  mother  by  her 
foster-child.  Even  the  Koran  admits  the  obligations  of 
this  tie  by  forbidding  marriage  between  foster-brother 
and  sister.  The  children  are  brought  up  in  a  primitive 
way,  without  any  regular  moral  or  physical  training. 
They  live  mostly  out  of  doors,  and  the  mothers  take  their 
children  with  them  everywhere,  to  the  bath,  in  making 
calls,  or  to  the  bazaars.  If  she  goes  on  horseback,  the 
baby  is  in  front  of  her  in  the  saddle.  As  a  rule  the  chil- 
dren have  a  bright,  healthy  look,  but  the  mortality  among 
infants  is  very  great,  owing  to  lack  of  medical  help  and 
proper  care.  Small-pox  and  bowel  troubles  are  respon- 
sible for  most  of  the  deaths. 

Up  to  the  age  of  seven  the  boys  live  in  the  harem, 
petted  and  spoiled  by  all,  from  the  mother  to  the  last 
slave.  In  the  eighth  year  he  enters  the  beroun,  or  men's 
quarters,  though  naturally  he  has  the  run  of  the  whole 
house.  At  this  age,  among  the  higher  classes,  the  boys  are 
placed  under  the  care  of  a  tutor,  who  teaches  them  read- 
ing, writing,  prayers,  and  deportment.  The  boys  are 
taught  to  be  polite  and  reserved  in  the  presence  of  their 
elders,  not  to  break  into  the  conversation  nor  to  ask  ques- 
tions. A  small  boy  of  good  family  will  conduct  himself 
with  a  formality  and  regard  to  etiquette  that  few  grown 
persons  in  the  West  can  imitate.  Occasionally  at  the 
death  of  his  father  one  may  see  an  eight-year-old  boy  who 
is  the  head  of  the  family.  He  will  sit  in  the  place  of 
honour,  receive  guests,  lead  the  conversation  with  dignity, 


335 

order  coffee  and  the  pipe — in  a  wora,  conduct  himself  as 
an  old  man.  The  noisy  rollicking  fun  of  a  European 
child  of  this  age  is  never  permitted  in  Persia,  and  all 
abrupt  and  undignified  motions  are  prohibited.  If  the 
boys  are  not  taught  at  home  by  a  private  tutor,  they  are 
sent  to  a  public  school.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  or  sixteen 
the  boy  is  married,  and  if  his  mother  is  a  widow  she  usu- 
ally rules  his  harem. 

The  position  of  women  among  the  nomadic  tribes  is  a 
little  different,  as  the  conditions  of  their  life  make  the 
seclusion  of  harems  impossible  to  the  degree  that  one  finds 
it  among  settled  people.  While  the  boys  take  part  in 
the  life  of  the  men,  the  girls  from  the  age  of  seven  or  eight 
help  in  household  work,  the  care  of  the  younger  children 
and  in  weaving  carpets — the  employment  of  all  the  no- 
mads in  Persia.  Girls  are  a  good  investment  among  no- 
mads, for  on  getting  married  the  husband  pays  the  parents 
a  certain  sum  known  as  "  sherie-bega,"  or  "kalima." 
These  girls  are  married  very  young,  often  at  ten  years  or 
less. 

Before  our  occupation  of  Transcaspia  the  Turkomans 
in  their  raids  into  Persia  often  carried  off  girls  and 
women,  whom  they  made  slaves.  The  lot  of  these  women 
was  a  sorry  one.  On  the  one  hand  her  captor  had  the  right 
of  placing  the  girl  in  his  harem  without  the  ceremony 
of  a  marriage,  and  on  the  other  hand  she  excited  the  jeal- 
ousy of  the  legal  wife  or  wives,  who  treated  these  rivals 
as  simple  slaves.  In  the  presence  of  the  husband  the  jeal- 
ousy remained  to  a  degree  hidden,  but  during  his  frequent 
absences  on  long  raids  they  gave  full  play  to  their  ha- 
tred and  jealousy.  The  poor  Persian  slaves  were  often 
chained,  whipped,  and  fed  only  enough  to  keep  life  in 
them.  The  fate  of  the  Persian  men  carried  into  captivity, 
on  the  contrary,  changed  for  the  better  during  the  absence 
of  the  husband.  At  such  times  the  Turkoman  ladies 


336         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

treated  them  with  favour  and  frequently  helped  them  to 
gain  their  freedom.  I  personally  knew  of  two  such  in- 
stances, as  related  to  me  by  the  escaped  captives  them- 
selves. 

One  would  think  that,  handicapped  as  they  are  in  every 
way,  secluded  in  harems,  and  enveloped  in  veils,  the  Per- 
sian women  could  not  take  any  part  in  the  social  or  politi- 
cal life  of  the  country.  Facts  prove  the  contrary,  how- 
ever. In  1848,  for  instance,  after  the  death  of  Mehmed 
Shah,  a  woman  ruled  Persia  for  some  time,  and  she  did 
it  with  great  tact,  energy  and  dignity. 

Another,  Hurrie-ul-Eyen,  was  at  the  head  of  the  dis- 
ciples of  Babism.  A  third,  the  wife  of  the  famous  Hadji 
Kevvam,  Hadji  Bebi  Hanum,  enjoyed  a  great  popularity, 
and  at  the  time  of  an  insurrection  in  Shiras,  in  the  middle 
of  the  last  century,  she,  with  her  own  hands,  gave  out  the 
guns  to  the  insurgents. 

Furthermore,  there  have  been  times  when  women  have 
governed  some  of  the  semi-independent  provinces  to  be 
found  in  Persia.  In  1880  the  ruler  of  the  province  of 
Hergira,  lying  north  of  Azerbaijan,  was  a  woman.  I 
once  had  the  honour  of  receiving  her  in  my  house.  She 
seemed  to  be  at  that  time  between  thirty-five  and  forty 
years  of  age.  On  taking  leave  of  me  she  said,  "  If  at  any 
time  you  have  need  of  Tuti  Hanum  [her  name]  send  me 
word.  I  have  not  many  horsemen,  perhaps  some  three 
hundred  or  four  hundred,  but  each  one  can  make  himself 
felt.  In  case  of  trouble  you  write  me  and  it  is  for  me  to 
act."  This  woman's  influence  reached  beyond  her  own 
people  to  the  neighbouring  semi-independent  tribes. 

Everyone  living  in  Persia  can  give  instances  where 
women  have  been  the  means,  by  their  tact  or  energy,  in 
Saving  their  husbands  in  troubled  days  even  from  death. 
There  are  times,  too,  when,  men  being  powerless  and  un- 
able to  take  a  responsibility,  the  women  have  saved  the 


POSITION   OF  WOMEN    IN    PERSIA    337 

day.  From  many  such  instances  I  shall  cite  but  a  few 
that  have  taken  place  in  comparatively  recent  times. 

In  1861  there  was  a  famine  in  Persia.  If  such  years 
bring  suffering  to  well-administered  European  countries 
where  quick  means  of  communication  exist,  and  the  gov- 
ernment and  society  make  every  effort  to  relieve  suffer- 
ing, what  must  a  famine  mean  in  Persia,  where  communi- 
cation is  slow  and  at  some  periods  of  the  year  closes, 
where  those  in  authority  buy  up  grain  and  sell  it  at  their 
own  prices,  becoming  rich  at  the  expense  of  the  people, 
where  society  and  government  do  nothing  to  relieve  the 
misery?  In  Europe  it  is  impossible  to  realise  how  the 
prices  can  rise  in  Persia  when  the  crops  fail.  Bread  is 
sold  at  eight,  ten  and  twelve  times  its  normal  price.  In 
addition  to  this,  bakers  having  but  little  flour  sell  their 
bread  to  their  acquaintances  or  to  people  of  position,  and 
others  cannot  get  it  even  for  money.  This  fact  wasi 
proved  by  the  beggars  refusing  money  and  only  pleading 
for  "  bread,  bread."  Along  the  streets  lay  the  bodies  of 
those  who  had  died  from  starvation.  At  this  time  a  mob 
of  several  thousand  women  driven  to  desperation  in  Te- 
heran went  out  to  meet  the  shah  on  his  return  from  a 
shooting  expedition.  The  women  surrounded  his  majesty 
so  closely  that  he  could  not  escape  from  them,  and  he  had 
to  listen  to  the  story  of  their  wrongs  and  to  promise  them 
to  cause  an  investigation  to  be  made.  The  result  was  that 
the  chief  of  police  and  several  others  paid  for  their  ava- 
rice with  their  lives,  and  the  price  of  bread  that  day 
dropped  one-half! 

In  1880  the  inhabitants  of  Tabriz  had  a  tax  laid  by  the 
governor  general  upon  all  provisions  brought  into  the 
markets.  The  result  of  this  tax  was  a  rise  in  the  price 
of  the  most  common  necessaries  of  life.  The  deep-re- 
pressed discontent  rose  to  murmurs,  and  finally  to  an  out- 
break of  the  women,  who,  meeting  the  governor  in  the 


338         LIFE   IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

street,  surrounded  him.  His  escort  decamped,  leaving 
the  unfortunate  official  to  the  mercy  of  the  mob  of  angry 
women.  He  was  obliged  to  pledge  his  word  that  the  ob- 
noxious tax  would  be  removed,  and  he  kept  his  promise. 
The  governor  general  of  Ispahan,  too,  was  once  unfor- 
tunate enough  to  give  orders  that  caused  discontent 
among  the  people.  The  women  seized  upon  a  day  that 
he  had  gone  out  shooting  and  gathered  at  a  place  that  he 
had  to  pass  on  his  return  home.  When  he  arrived  the 
women  closed  in  upon  him,  throwing  their  babes  on  the 
ground  tinder  the  feet  of  the  horses  of  the  governor  and 
his  suite.  The  procession  halted,  and  the  governor  was 
obliged  to  pacify  the  women  by  yielding  to  their  de- 
mands. Such  instances  are  by  no  means  rare  in  any  part 
of  Persia. 

But  what  is  the  view  of  the  Europeanised  Persians  on 
the  woman  question?  Do  their  views  change  under  the 
influence  of  European  life  and  European  education? 
Unfortunately  the  reply  is  definite  and  in  the  negative. 
From  many  years'  experience  in  Persia,  and  close  acquain- 
tance with  the  people,  I  am  persuaded  that  neither  long 
years  passed  in  Europe  nor  education  received  there  can 
change  the  views  held  for  one  thousand  thr'ee  hundred 
years  in  the  Islamic  world  in  regard  to  woman.  In  con- 
versation with  casual  acquaintances  such  Persians  will 
always  take  the  popular  ground,  criticising  the  uncivilised 
view  of  their  countrymen,  but  they  are  not  sincere.  With 
an  intimate  European  friend,  or  after  the  cup  has  been 
freely  passed,  they  will  show  their  real  belief  that  the 
freedom  of  women  in  Europe  is  a  great  curse;  that  owing 
to  it,  women  are  frequently  the  "  apple  of  discord,"  the 
cause  of  duels  even  between  friends;  that  women  invented 
fashions  and  made  their  husbands  slaves  to  it  also;  and 
finally,  that  owing  to  this  freedom  there  are  in  Europe 
more  unhappy  marriages  than  in  Persia.  But  more  con- 


POSITION   OF  WOMEN    IN    PERSIA    339 

vincing  than  words  are  deeds.  These  "  Europeanised  " 
Persians,  in  returning  to  settle  down  in  their  native  land, 
will  keep  their  harems  with  a  strictness  seldom  to  be  found 
in  modern  times  by  the  most  old-fashioned  of  the  natives. 
In  summing  up,  nothing  can  better  show  the  view  Per- 
sians take  of  woman's  equality  in  the  home  than  the  popu- 
lar lines  of  the  poet  Saadi,  which,  roughly  translated,  run: 

"  No  happiness  comes  to  the  house  of  him 
Whose  hen  hath  crowed  like  a  cock." 


CHAPTER  XIX 


Characteristics  of  Shiite  Fetes — Friday — The  Sacred  Month  of  Muhar- 
ram  and  its  First  Ten  Days — Historical  Origin  of  these  Cele- 
brations— Religious  Processions — Mystery  Plays — Tekke  Actors — 
Birthdays  of  Mohammed  and  Ali — Fasting  during  Ramadan — Anni- 
versary of  All's  Death — Night  of  el-Kadr — First  Month  of  Shaw- 
wal — Omar-Kushan — Kurban  Bairam — The  Persian  New  Year — 
Its  Origin  and  Significance  in  the  Life  of  Persians — Calls — Solar 
Year — The  Calendar  in  the  Persian's  Life — Divisions  of  Summer 
and  Winter  into  Periods — Divisions  of  the  Twenty-four  Hours. 

PERSIAN  fetes  may  be  divided,  according  to  their  histori- 
cal origin,  into  three  categories:  first,  such  as  are  com- 
mon to  all  the  Moslem  world,  whether  Sunnites  or 
Shiites;  second,  days  of  mourning,  observed  only  by 
Shiites,  who  form  the  majority  of  the  population  of  Per- 
sia; and  thirdly,  the  civil  fete  day  of  No-ruz,  or  New 
Year,  which  dates  from  pre-Islamic  days.  The  religious 
celebrations  of  the  Shiites  are  mostly  of  a  sad  character, 
being  for  the  greater  part  the  anniversaries  of  the  death 
or  martyrdom  of  their  saints,  or  imams. 

The  Moslem  day  corresponding  to  the  Christian  Sun- 
day or  to  the  Jewish  Sabbath  is  Friday — Djuma. 
"  Djum "  means  a  gathering,  or  congregation ;  hence 
Djuma,  a  day  for  gathering  together  for  service.  This  is 
the  only  religious  signification  that  Djuma  has  in  Persia, 
and  we  do  not  find  much  difference  in  the  outer  life  of 
the  people  on  that  day. 

The  first  month  of  the  solar  year  is  Muharram,  which 

340 


MOURNING,  FASTS  AND  FEASTS     341 

is  considered  by  the  Shiites  to  be  sacred,  especially  its  first 
ten  days,  and  is  throughout  Persia  a  month  of  mourning. 
The  first  ten  days  are  devoted  to  the  commemoration  of  j 
the  tragic  death  of  the  grandson  of  Mohammed,  Hussein,  / 
and  that  of  his  family.  To  one  who  is  unacquainted  with 
the  historical  significance  of  this  event,  the  street  scenes 
make  a  peculiar  impression.  All  ordinary  movement  is 
suspended,  shops  closed,  cafes  empty,  and  all  work 
stopped.  Processions  pass,  among  which  are  people  tor- 
turing themselves  in  the  most  cruel  manner,  and  on  every 
side  one  hears  the  cries  of  "  Hussein!  Hassan  1 " 

To  understand  a  description  of  these  celebrations  it  is 
necessary  to  glance  back  to  the  early  days  of  the  Islamic 
world.  Ali,  as  is  well  known,  actually  became  caliph 
only  after  Abu-Bekr,  Omar,  and  Osman,  although  having 
been  designated,  according  to  the  Shiites,  by  the  Prophet 
as  his  immediate  successor.  During  the  party  strifes  that 
followed,  Ali  was  slain  in  a  mosque  at  Cuf a  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Yezid.  Hassan,  the  son  of  Ali,  who  married 
a  daughter  of  the  Persian  shah,  lived  in  Medina  with  his 
brother  Hussein.  Here  Hassan  was  poisoned  by  his  own 
wife  at  the  instigation  of  Yezid,  whom  she  afterwards 
married.  A  sister  also  lived  with  Hussein  as  well  as 
nephews,  these  being  the  only  descendants  of  the  Prophet. 

Shortly  after  the  murder  of  Ali  the  inhabitants  of  Cufa 
invited  his  surviving  son,  Hussein,  to  return  to  Cufa, 
where  he  was  promised  assistance  in  establishing  his 
rights  to  the  caliphate.  While  on  his  way  to  Cufa  with 
his  entire  family,  sister,  nephews  and  servants — in  all  sev- 
enty-two souls — he  was  surrounded  in  the  plain  of  Ker- 
bela  by  a  host  of  4,000  sent  by  his  rival,  Yezid. 
The  Arabian  historians,  Abul  Feda,  Tabarie,  and  others, 
give  us  descriptions  of  the  unequal  tragic  battle  fought 
between  the  descendants  of  the  Prophet  and  the  warriors 
of  the  caliph. 


342 

On  the  9th  Muharram  in  the  6ist  year  of  the  hegira 
(680  A.D.)  Yezid's  army  of  4,000  met  Hussein's  little 
band.  The  latter  entrenched  themselves  as  best  they 
could  on  low  mounds  by  the  Euphrates,  where  they  re- 
ceived the  emissaries  of  the  caliph.  The  proposals  made 
were  rejected  by  Hussein,  who  resolved  to  give  his  life 
in  the  unequal  conflict.  He  passed  the  night  in  prepara- 
tions for  the  fight  and  in  prayer.  Wearied,  he  threw 
himself  down  and  fell  into  a  light  sleep  towards  morn- 
ing, when  the  Prophet  appeared  to  him  and  said,  "  Have 
patience  a  little  longer:  soon  thou  shalt  be  with  us."  On 
awaking  he  recounted  the  vision  to  his  sister,  Zeinab, 
who  exclaimed,  "O  God,  why  hast  thou  permitted  me 
to  live  to  see  this  day?  Our  father,  Ali,  is  killed;  our 
brother  Hassan  poisoned,  and  must  I  survive  Hussein?" 

At  daybreak  the  brave  handful  prepared  for  certain 
death.  They  put  on  their  best  clothes,  cleaned  their  arms 
and  arrayed  themselves  to  receive  battle.  So  great  was 
still  the  power  of  the  Prophet's  grandson  that  thirty  of 
the  followers  of  Yezid  went  over  to  him,  and  among  the 
remainder  a  decided  wavering  was  evident.  The  leader  of 
the  cavalry,  fearing  that  the  disaffection  would  increase, 
at  once  ordered  the  charge.  In  spite  of  the  great  inequal- 
ity of  numbers,  the  small  band  bravely  repulsed  the 
charge  and  kept  up  the  fight  during  the  entire  day.  Piti- 
ful are  the  accounts  given  by  the  mullahs  to  the  weeping 
congregations  that  surround  them  the  loth  Muharram, 
the  anniversary  of  the  day  of  the  suffering  endured  by 
that  heroic  little  band.  Their  being  cut  off  from  the 
river  increased  their  miseries,  and  many  brave  men  per- 
ished in  trying  to  dash  down  the  hill  to  get  water  for  the 
little  ones  who  were  crying  with  thirst 

In  the  evening  of  the  loth  the  end  came.  One  by  one 
his  followers  fell,  and  Hussein,  wounded,  took  his  small 
son  in  his  arms,  when  a  well-directed  blow  spattered  the 


MOURNING,   FASTS  AND  FEASTS      343 

father  with  his  son's  blood,  and  soon  after  Hussein  re- 
ceived his  mortal  wound. 

It  is  the  anniversary  of  these  events  that  is  commemo- 
rated during  the  first  ten  days  of  the  month  of  Muharram, 
and  for  these  martyrs  the  entire  country  is  in  mourning 
throughout  the  month.  Those  who  can  afford  to  do  so 
dress  entirely  in  black,  or  the  men  in  sign  of  mourning 
leave  the  top  buttons  of  their  shirts  unbuttoned,  and 
women  who  have  no  black  garments  wear  what  they  have 
wrong  side  out!  No  marriages  are  celebrated,  nor  din- 
ners given  nor  formal  calls  made  during  this  time,  and 
music  is  not  heard  except  such  as  accompanies  the  reli- 
gious processions.  Although  the  mourning  is  usually 
limited  to  the  month  of  Muharram,  some  devout  persons 
continue  it  for  two  weeks  longer. 

The  first  few  days  only  small  processions  go  through 
the  streets  chanting  and  beating  their  naked  breasts  to  the 
refrain  of  "Hassan!  Hussein!"  On  the  eighth  and  ninth 
days  the  processions  become  larger  and  more  elaborate, 
culminating  on  the  tenth  day.  In  these  processions  are  to 
be  seen  strings  of  camels  on  whose  backs  are  women  rep- 
resenting those  who  were  taken  captive  and  small  children 
seated  on  horses  spattered  with  blood.  These  children 
are  often  the  daughters  of  the  highest  families  in  the  city.. 
The  body  of  Hussein,  covered  with  a  bloody  cloth  and 
accompanied  by  his  led  horse,  usually  follows.  In  the 
front  of  the  procession  are  hundreds  of  men  and  boys, 
some  beating  their  naked  breasts  with  their  hands,  others, 
stripped  to  the  waist,  lashing  their  backs  with  chains  in 
time  to  the  music  and  chanting.  The  swish  of  the  chains 
on  the  bruised  and  bloody  backs,  and  sharp  slaps  on  the 
breasts  can  be  heard  from  a  distance  above  the  din  of  the 
drums.  Others,  also  stripped  to  the  waist,  shuffle  pain- 
fully along,  having  their  backs,  arms  and  breasts  hung 
with  padlocks,  daggers,  horseshoes,  etc.,  that  are  fastened 


344        LIFE    IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

into  the  flesh.  I  have  seen  men  who  carried  as  much  as 
twenty  to  thirty  pounds  weight  in  this  way,  actually  hang- 
ing from  the  quivering  flesh ! 

The  "bloody  processions"  march  by  themselves,  as  they 
go  single  file  sideways,  with  a  peculiar  swaying,  sidling 
step.  They  are  dressed  in  white  slips,  and  are  bare- 
headed, the  middle  of  the  head  being  shaved.  The  left 
hand  of  each  man  is  slipped  into  his  neighbour's  belt,  and 
in  the  right  hand  is  carried  a  sword  with  which,  in  time 
to  the  music,  each  cuts  his  forehead  and  head,  the  blood 
pouring  down  over  the  white  slips.  Streets  through 
which  the  "  bloody  processions "  pass  become  wet  and 
slippery  with  blood.  Friends  walk  behind  them  to  ward 
off  the  blows  and  to  pick  up  and  carry  off  to  the  baths 
those  who  fall  from  loss  of  blood.  Persians  will  tell  you 
that  none  of  these  men  ever  die,  but  they  do  frequently 
succumb,  and  then  their  friends  consider  that  their  souls 
have  at  once  attained  Paradise.  These  deaths  are  gener- 
ally kept  quiet,  as  the  population  is  taught  to  believe  that 
the  Prophet  sends  healing  to  all  those  who  wound  them- 
selves in  this  way. 

One  often  sees  small  children  being  coaxed  by  their 
parents  to  cut  themselves.  I  remember  once  watching 
from  our  roof  a  man  whom  we  knew  had  buried  many 
children  and  now  had  but  one  dearly  loved  child,  a  boy 
of  some  two  years  of  age.  Hoping  to  please  God  and  se- 
cure the  life  of  this  child  the  father  carried  him  in  his 
arms  in  that  dreadful  procession,  feeding  the  baby  with 
sweets  to  console  him,  and  every  little  while  guiding  the 
tiny  hand  that  grasped  a  dagger  to  cut  his  own  baby  fore- 
head. When  the  same  procession,  after  visiting  the  pre- 
scribed mosques,  repassed  our  house  hours  later,  we  saw 
the  man  carrying  his  now  unconscious  child,  white  from 
loss  of  blood,  lying  apparently  lifeless  in  the  father's 
arms.  The  poor  man  was  happy  in  the  hope  that  the  tor- 


MOURNING,   FASTS  AND  FEASTS      34$ 

ture  had  been  pleasing  in  God's  sight  and  that  this  child 
might  be  suffered  to  grow  up ! 

Each  city,  town  and  village  has  its  processions,  but  they 
differ  in  the  degree  of  fanaticism.  In  the  large  cities 
of  Meshed  and  Tabriz  people  come  from  the  Caucasus, 
where  bloody  processions  are  not  permitted.  In  the  same 
city  many  different  processions  form,  and,  singularly 
enough,  if  they  meet  each  other  neither  procession  will 
make  way  and  a  bloody  fight  ensues.  The  police  there- 
fore carefully  arrange  a  program  for  the  route  that  each 
procession  is  to  take,  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  avoid  meet- 
ings ;  their  efforts,  however,  are  seldom  wholly  successful, 
and  nearly  every  year  collisions  occur,  with  fatal  results. 

The  most  fanatical  and  the  most  capable  of  enduring 
pain  are  the  inhabitants  of  Azerbaijan,  the  northwestern 
province  of  Persia,  as  well  as  those  who  come  over  from 
the  Caucasus.  When  in  Meshed  we  had  a  coachman  from 
the  Caucasus  who  would  each  year  ask  permission  to 
"  go  and  cut  his  head,"  and  he  always  did  it  so  conscien- 
tiously that  we  had  the  pleasure  of  driving  behind  a 
bandaged  coachman  for  weeks  after. 

The  processions  halt  at  the  various  mosques,  where 
special  rites  are  prescribed,  and  also  at  the  gates  of  the 
governor  or  other  high  dignitaries.  These  have  food 
and  cooling  drinks  prepared  in  great  quantities  to  give 
to  the  people.  All  through  these  days  men  may  be  seen 
as  water  carriers,  or  with  large  jugs  of  sherbet  or  iced 
water,  which  they  offer  to  the  people  in  the  processions, 
who,  parched  with  loss  of  blood  or  the  constant  shouting 
and  singing,  gladly  drink.  Men  of  high  rank  often  act 
in  this  way  as  water  carriers,  in  memory  of  the  sufferings 
of  that  small  band  who  over  a  thousand  years  ago  were 
cut  off  from  water  on  the  little  hill  in  the  hot  Mesopo- 
tamian  desert.  The  processions  often  go  to  the  govern- 
or's house  and  demand  the  release  of  certain  prisoners. 


346         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

This  leads  to  many  abuses,  rich  criminals  having  a  better 
chance  of  interesting  the  processions  than  have  the  poor. 

In  Russia  and  India  the  processions  are  accompanied 
by  the  police  to  keep  order.  In  Turkey  the  position  of 
the  Shiites  is  rather  delicate,  as  this  celebration  is  some- 
thing of  a  manifestation  against  the  Sunnites.  Street  pro- 
cessions are  therefore  impossible,  but  the  Turks  permit 
the  Persians  to  hold  their  celebrations  inside  of  some 
caravanserai,  or  in  the  courtyard  of  a  Persian  house. 

Throughout  the  month  of  Muharram  religious  plays 
are  given,  called  Taazie,  from  the  Arabic  word  meaning 
grief.  These  are  something  resembling  the  mediaeval 
mystery  plays,  and  they  have  for  subjects  the  historical 
events  just  described.  Properly  speaking,  these  repre- 
sentations should  take  place  the  first  ten  days  or  at  the 
most  during  the  month  of  Muharram  only,  but  for  want 
of  sufficient  actors  they  often  run  over  into  the  month  of 
Safar.  In  the  Taazies  held  for  the  shah,  princes,  or 
persons  of  consequence,  the  plays  continue  day  by  day 
in  historical  sequence,  but  they  are  all  varied  by  prologues 
that  are  in  no  way  connected,  either  according  to  contem- 
poraneous history  or  exactness  of  fact.  For  instance, 
the  eighth  representation  of  the  Taazie  opens  with  the 
appearance  on  the  stage  of  Tamerlane  (Timur)  and  his 
vizier,  who  decide  to  place  themselves  at  the  head  of 
an  army  and  to  conquer  the  world.  The  scene  next  shifts 
to  Damascus.  Here  the  governor  surrenders  the  keys  to 
Timur,  and  during  the  interview  Timur  recognises  the 
governor  as  being  a  descendant  of  Shamir,  the  slayer  of 
Hussein.  Timur  reproaches  the  governor,  proving  that 
he  reached  his  present  position  thanks  to  an  awful  crime 
that  hung  over  the  heads  of  his  ancestors.  Then  Timur 
orders  the  daughter  of  the  mayor  of  Damascus  to  be 
brought  before  him.  The  damsel  appears  in  full  dress, 
and  is  also  reproached  for  the  martyrdom  and  suffering 


MOURNING,   FASTS  AND  FEASTS      347 

of  Hussein  and  his  family.  After  which  Timur  orders 
the  city  of  Damascus  to  tie  sacked.  Timur  is  so  over- 
powered by  the  emotions  raised  by  his  own  speech  that 
at  the  advice  of  his  vizier  he  decides  to  attend  a  Taazie. 
This  he  does  by  joining  the  audience  as  a  spectator  of 
what  follows! 

In  the  tenth  representation  of  the  Taazie  is  the  story 
of  Jacob  and  Joseph  as  given  in  the  Koran.  The  part- 
ing of  Jacob  from  his  beloved  son  is  represented  in  the 
first  scene,  the  lowering  of  Joseph  into  a  well,  the  selling 
to  Egyptians,  and  finally  the  grief  of  Jacob  at  the  sup- 
posed death  of  his  son.  The  angel  Gabriel  here  appears 
to  Jacob,  reproaching  him  for  his  weakness  and  telling 
him  that  there  have  been  more  unhappy  fathers  than  he, 
in  proof  of  which  he  cites  the  sufferings  of  Hussein  and 
his  family.  The  Taazie  then  takes  up  the  story  and  con- 
tinues. 

In  the  seventh  scene  we  see  Hussein  having  an  inter- 
view with  the  commander  of  the  opposing  forces.  In  this 
interview  a  European  ambassador  appears  who  attempts 
to  persuade  Yezid  to  accept  the  terms  of  peace  dictated 
by  Hussein.  When  Yezid  definitely  refuses  all  his  in- 
tercessions, the  foreign  ambassador  himself  embraces  Is- 
lamism. 

These  plays  are  generally  held  in  some  large  courtyard, 
the  windows  of  the  house  furnishing  boxes,  or  boxes  are 
raised  along  the  wall.  This  temporary  theatre  is  called 
a  tekke.  The  tekke  of  the  shah  is  a  circular  building 
with  a  canvas  dome,  capable  of  seating  some  two  thousand 
spectators.  The  stage  is  in  the  centre  of  the  arena  and 
the  women  sit  on  the  floor  all  about  it.  Around  the  walls 
are  three  rows  of  boxes,  some  of  which  are  open,  for 
men,  and  others  are  enclosed  by  latticework,  for  the  court 
ladies,  and  also  for  Europeans  who  may  be  present  but 
had  better  not  be  seen  by  the  fanatical  multitude.  The 


348         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

boxes  are  lined  with  carpets,  and  during  the  representa- 
tions pipes,  tea,  coffee  and  sherbet  are  served.  The  walls 
from  floor  to  ceiling  present  a  sea  of  light,  as  every  avail- 
able space  is  covered  with  candles,  hanging  lamps,  lan- 
terns, reflectors',  mirrors,  etc.,  which  are  most  original 
in  their  effect.  Of  course  only  a  few  tekkes  are  so  luxu- 
rious. Inmost  cities  and  small  places  the  Taazies  are  held, 
according  to  the  season  of  the  year,  in  courtyards,  under 
the  open  sky,  or  in  tents,  that  during  this  month  spring 
up  like  mushrooms  in  every  town  and  hamlet.  The  Per- 
sians of  all  classes  are  generous  in  contributing  all  that 
is  necessary  to  maintain  the  Taazies.  The  actors  are 
formed  in  companies  under  a  manager,  who  is  at  once 
owner  and  stage  manager.  The  principal  parts  are  those 
of  the  Imam  Hussein  and  his  children,  the  actors  for 
these  parts  being  carefully  selected.  Children  who  can 
act  are  well  paid,  some  getting  for  the  ten  days  from  three 
hundred  to  five  hundred  dollars. 

The  same  company  plays  in  different  parts  of  the  city, 
representations  thus  going  on  from  eight  in  the  morning 
until  midnight,  and  on  the  close  of  one  Taazie  the  actors 
may  be  seen  hurrying  to  another  tekke. 

Women's  parts  are  taken  by  boys  dressed  in  women's 
clothes.  There  is  no  decoration.  In  one  corner  of  the 
stage  Hussein  may  be  seen  singing,  and  at  the  other  side 
is  Yezid,  although  they  are  not  supposed  to  see  each  other, 
being  in  fact  represented  as  miles  apart!  Umbrellas 
are  placed  open  on  the  stage  as  tents ;  the  foreign  ambas- 
sador comes  on  in  clothes  borrowed  from  some  European, 
generally  with  a  top  hat,  and  his  daughter  has  always 
worn  hoops  and  green  gloves  in  the  tekkes  where  I  have 
been.  Horses,  camels  and  sometimes  entire  caravans  pass 
across  the  stage  and  the  street  processions  join  the  spec- 
tators. Owing  to  the  talent  of  the  actors  and  the  vivid 
representation  of  a  subject  so  well  known  and  so  close  to 


MOURNING,  FASTS  AND  FEASTS      349 

the  heart  of  all  in  the  tekke,  the  scene  is  moving  in  the 
extreme.  When  Hussein  takes  his  last  farewell  of  his 
children  and  sister  the  sobs  of  the  spectators  drown  the 
words  of  the  actors.  The  thousands  present  sob  as  one 
person ;  the  women  seated  on  the  ground  sob,  the  sentinels 
standing  at  the  entrance,  gun  in  hand,  sob,  and  even  the 
actors  themselves  break  down  and  weep,  while  we 
outsiders  and  "  unbelievers "  find  ourselves  deeply 
moved. 

The  actors  who  take  the  part  of  Yezid  and  Shamir,  the 
murderer  of  Hussein,  are  not  to  be  envied.  In  Ardabil 
the  man  who  played  the  part  of  Yezid  was,  in  the  sixties, 
killed  by  the  multitude,  whose  fanaticism  had  been  raised 
to  the  highest  pitch  by  his  fine  interpretation  of  the  role. 
Even  in  modern  times  the  unfortunate  actors  who  take 
these  parts  try  to  disappear  unnoticed. 

The  clergy  and  some  strict  Moslems  disapprove  of  the 
Taazies,  looking  upon  them  as  blasphemous,  but  these 
are  isolated  voices  "  crying  in  the  wilderness."  Aside 
from  the  Taazies,  in  every  mosque  the  mullahs  read  from 
day  to  day  the  moving  account  of  the  suffering  of  the 
martyrs.  In  riding  through  the  streets  during  Muharram 
it  is  a  common  sight  to  catch  glimpses  through  open  doors 
and  windows  of  the  interior  of  a  mosque  or  school,  or 
perhaps  of  a  room  engaged  for  the  purpose.  The  mullah 
is  seated  on  the  floor  in  front  of  his  little  book  rest,  read- 
ing, or  rather  chanting,  and  swaying  his  body  back  and 
forth  as  he  does  so.  The  floor  is  covered  with  seated  peo- 
ple, veiled  women  being  in  the  majority,  and  all  are 
shaken  with  sobs  and  loud  weeping. 

On  the  1 2th  of  Rebi-ul-Ewel  the  entire  Mussulman 
world  celebrates  the  birthday  of  the  Prophet  by  firing 
of  cannon  and  by  fireworks  at  night.  The  i3th  of  Redjeb 
the  Shiites  commemorate  the  birthday  of  Ali,  but  without 
any  special  pomp.  In  Teheran  the  shah  holds  a  recep- 


350         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

tion,  selam,  and  the  evening  before  a  display  of  fireworks 
is  all  that  marks  the  day. 

The  month  of  Ramadan  changes,  for  the  time  being, 
the  entire  course  of  social  and  business  life,  and  has  a  very 
injurious  effect  upon  the  economic  condition  of  the  popu- 
lace. This  fast  observed  throughout  the  "  Mahi  mu- 
barek,"  'or  blessed  month,  was  appointed  by  Mohammed 
himself,  probably  in  imitation  of  Jewish  and  Christian 
fasts. 

The  teachings  in  regard  to  the  fast  are  to  be  found 
most  particularly  in  the  iSist  and  i83d  verses  of  the 
ad  Sura,  and  are  as  follows:  "The  month  of  Ramadan 
shall  ye  fast,  in  which  the  Koran  was  sent  down  from 
Heaven,  direction  unto  men,  and  declarations  of  direction, 
and  the  distinction  between  good  and  evil.  Therefore 
let  him  among  you  who  shall  be  present  in  this  month 
fast  the  same  month,  but  he  who  shall  be  sick  or  on  a 
journey  shall  fast  the  like  number  of  other  days."  Fur- 
ther, in  the  i83d  verse  permission  is  given  to  "eat  and 
drink  until  you  can  plainly  distinguish  a  white  thread 
from  a  black  thread  by  the  daybreak.  Then  keep  the 
fast  until  night." 

The  observance  of  the  fast  in  all  its  strictness,  as  is  the 
duty  of  every  true  believer  (the  omission  of  which  may 
land  him  straight  in  Gehenna),  is  exceedingly  burden- 
some. For  a  whole  month  he  may  not  eat,  nor  drink,  nor 
smoke,  nor  "even  swallow  his  spittle,"  from  sunrise  to 
sunset.  This  is  particularly  trying  when  Ramadan  falls 
in  the  summer  months,  when  during  the  long  days  of 
from  fourteen  to  fifteen  hours  the  poor  people  may  not 
even  wet  their  parched  lips.  The  day  labourer  and  poor 
classes  suffer  intensely,  and  yet  it  is  just  these  classes  that 
have  to  work  for  their  daily  bread  in  spite  of  hunger  and, 
what  is  still  worse,  thirst,  that  are  the  most  faithful  in 
carrying  out  the  commands.  The  rich  sleep  all  day  to 


MOURNING,  FASTS  AND  FEASTS      351 

make  up  for  tne  night  of  feasting.  The  poor,  unable  to 
do  this,  drag  through  the  day,  only  half  doing  their  tasks, 
so  that  work  of  every  kind  is  almost  at  a  standstill  during 
this  month.  All  official  calls  have  to  be  done  after  the 
evening  meal,  and  one  has  to  therefore  make  up  one's 
mind  to  getting  very  little  done.  The  fast  includes  the 
abstinence  from  food,  drink,  and  certain  other  necessaries. 
Conditions  are  laid  down  under  which  even  the  dust  that 
enters  the  body  through  the  mouth  may  annul  the  entire 
fast.  Women  are  forbidden  to  plunge  into  water,  smok- 
ing is  likewise  prohibited,  and  taking  snuff  or  smelling 
of  aromatic  herbs  or  perfumery,  as  is  also  the  bath,  from 
sunrise  to  sunset. 

According  to  the  Shariat  the  following  persons  are 
exempt  from  fasting:  boys  under  fourteen  and  girls  under 
nine  years  of  age,  travellers,  the  sick,  and  women  at  cer- 
tain periods — this  last  privilege  is  granted  not  in  view  of 
preserving  health  but  as  coming  under  one  of  the  heads 
of  the  doctrine  "  clean  and  unclean."  Pregnant  women, 
or  those  suckling  their  babes,  are  not  freed  from  this  obli- 
gation except  in  cases  where  the  health  of  the  child 
plainly  demands  it.  The  effects  of  the  fast  on  the  little 
ones  is  often  pitiful. 

The  rich  sleep  from  the  early  morning  cannon  or  until 
midday  or  later.  In  the  afternoon  they  pretend  to  do  a 
couple  of  hours'  work,  but  they  are  irritable  and  weak,  as 
we  always  find  when  forced  to  make  an  official  call.  From 
three  to  four  they  go  to  the  mosque,  and  later,  to  forget 
their  hunger  and  thirst,  they  usually  take  a  ride,  or  wait 
impatiently  the  evening  cannon  announcing  the  sunset 
and  end  of  a  long  day  of  fasting.  This  is  the  hour  most 
eagerly  longed  for  by  all  alike,  rich  and  poor,  old  and 
young.  Everyone  looks  longingly  at  the  shadows  or  at 
their  watches,  that  during  this  month  at  least  are  care- 
fully regulated.  The  bazaars  are  mostly  closed  and  the 


352         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

streets  are  nearly  empty.  The  few  one  meets  are  pale  and 
weary-looking,  and  they  pass  carefully  closing  mouth  and 
nose  from  dust.  On  every  side  one  hears  the  monotonous 
chanting  sound  of  the  reading  of  the  Koran.  Every  true 
Mohammedan  should  read  the  Koran  through  during 
this  month,  for  which  purpose  it  is  divided  into  thirty 
equal  parts,  one  for  each  day.  More  religious  people 
read  the  Koran  through  in  three  days,  so  as  to  get  it  read 
ten  times  in  the  month. 

It  is  interesting  to  look  down  from  our  flat  roofs  into 
the  yards  of  our  neighbours  on  a  summer  evening  of 
Ramadan.  A  carpet  is  spread  by  the  running  stream, 
the  supper  is  laid  out  on  a  tray,  ice  water  and  sherbets 
are  close  at  hand,  and  the  kalian,  or  water-pipe,  is  lighted. 
The  host  and  his  friends  are  seated  with  their  stockinged 
feet  tucked  under  them,  while  their  shoes  are  placed 
neatly  in  pairs  at  the  edge  of  the  carpet.  Each  one  is 
leaning  forward,  waiting  breathlessly,  and  the  instant 
the  gun  is  fired  the  pipes  are  passed,  one  or  two  puffs, 
then  a  long  drink,  and  with  a  sigh  of  bliss  all  fall  to  in 
silence. 

The  whole  city  now  seems  to  awake  from  sleep.  After 
the  evening  meal  the  streets  are  animated,  bazaars  open, 
cafe  fill,  and  the  sounds  of  music  and  revel  are  heard, 
everyone  in  his  own  way  trying  to  make  up  for  the  priva- 
tions he  has  endured.  All  night  the  life  of  the  city  con- 
tinues. Some  two  hours  before  sunrise  a  gun  is  fired  as 
the  signal  for  preparing  the  last  meal.  This  is  served, 
a  last  pipe  smoked  and  a  last  pinch  of  opium  taken  (the 
origin  of  the  muezzin's  cry  of  "  Ab-u-teriak,"  water  and 
opium),  and  with. another  cannon's  boom  the  day  of  fast 
begins. 

Our  Mohammedan  servants  would  get  a  nap  between 
this  cannon  and  the  time  when  they  had  to  begin  their 
work,  but  all  housekeepers  learn  to  look  leniently  upon 


MOURNING,  FASTS  AND   FEASTS      353 

a  house  half  cared  for  during  this  month.  The  first 
week,  they  say,  is  the  most  painful,  and  we  found  it  to  be 
so,  for  our  men  would  be  hardly  recognisable,  growing 
pale,  weak,  and  utterly  indifferent  to  their  work.  Later 
they  seemed  to  get  into  training  and  would  pull  them- 
selves together  and  get  on  much  better. 

According  to  the  Shariat,  the  breaking  of  the  fast  is 
punishable  with  stripes  for  the  first  offence,  with  a  greater 
number  of  blows  for  the  second,  and  death  for  the  third. 
There  are,  however,  means  by  which  one  can  evade  the 
fast  without  laying  one's  self  open  to  punishment.  But 
this  privilege,  a  journey,  is  possible  only  for  the  rich. 
Travellers  are  freed  from  fasting  if  they  go  more  than 
four  farsaks,  about  fifteen  miles,  and  if  they  do  not  stop 
anywhere  for  more  than  a  certain  time.  Ramadan,  there- 
fore, is  the  favourite  time  for  leisurely  caravan  journeys 
to  visit  relatives  in  a  neighbouring  city,  or  to  go  on  a  pro- 
longed shooting  expedition,  or  more  frequently  on  a 
pilgrimage  to  some  shrine. 

The  second  means  of  evading  the  painful  fast  is  illness. 
The  would-be  invalid  finds  an  accommodating  Mudjta- 
heid  who  gives  him  a  "  fetwa,"  or  written  certificate,  and 
he  is  free. 

Many  Persians,  too,  keep  the  fast  outwardly  but  eat  in 
secret,  only  in  strict  secret,  however,  as  they  fear  the  con- 
sequences of  its  being  known.  In  1891  two  men  who  were 
caught  in  the  act  of  eating  during  Ramadan  were  nailed 
by  the  ears  to  the  wall,  in  which  position  they  stood  for 
hours,  while  passers-by  spat  in  their  faces. 

Even  friends  on  meeting  will  complain  and  mutually 
condole  with  each  other  on  the  hardships  of  the  fast, 
though  each  may  have  the  best  reason  for  knowing  that 
his  friend  has  not  kept  the  fast  any  better  than  he  himself 
has  done. 

The  exact  days  which  mark  the  beginning  and  end  of 


354         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

the  fast  are  always  occasions  for  public  excitement.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Koran  it  is  necessary  in  both  cases  to  see 
the  new  moon.  On  the  expected  days  the  flat  roofs  are 
black  with  people  studying  the  sky.  It  sometimes  hap- 
pens that  in  one  city  the  moon  is  seen,  whereas  in  another, 
owing  to  clouds,  it  may  not  be  visible.  Now  the  telegraph 
exists,  in  many  places  the  news  can  be  sent  from  city  to 
city,  but  if  off  the  telegraph  line  the  people  wait  another 
day,  as  they  will  not  believe  the  calendar.  So  often  the 
inhabitants  of  one  place  begin  or  end  the  fast  before  those 
of  another! 

The  i9th,  2Oth,  and  aist  of  Ramadan  are  bytheShiites 
consecrated  to  the  memory  of  the  events  connected  with 
the  death  of  Ali.  On  the  I9th  he  was  stabbed  with  a 
poisoned  dagger  while  praying  in  a  mosque,  and  two  days 
later,  the  2ist,  he  died.  During  these  three  days  every- 
one is  in  mourning,  the  men  go  about  with  unbuttoned 
shirts,  bazaars  are  closed,  and  often  one  cannot  get  any 
provisions. 

During  this  blessed  month  of  Ramadan  is  the  holy 
"  night  of  power,"  el-kadr,  celebrated  throughout  the 
Moslem  world  under  the  name  of  "  Leilut-el-kadr." 
This  is  the  night,  according  to  Mohammed,  when  God 
revealed  to  him  the  Koran  as  a  whole,  and  it  is  also  the 
night  when  divine  decrees  for  the  ensuing  year  are  fixed 
annually  and  given  to  the  angels  to  execute.  Commenta- 
tors, however,  are  disagreed  as  to  the  date  of  the  celebra- 
tion. After  much  discussion  it  was  decided  that  it  must 
be  on  the  2ist,  aad  or  23d  of  Ramadan.  To  be  sure  of 
not  overlooking  the  correct  date  the  Shiites  hold  all  three! 
The  Sunnites,  however,  celebrate  the  27th  of  Ramadan. 

In  Constantinople  the  sultan  goes  to  the  mosque  of 
Santa  Sophia,  which  is  brilliantly  illuminated  that  night, 
the  ceremony  being  one  of  the  most  unique  and  impres- 
sive that  foreigners  are  ever  permitted  to  witness. 


MOURNING,   FASTS  AND  FEASTS 

The  98th  chapter  of  the  Koran,  on  which  the  celebra- 
tion is  based,  is  suggestive  of  the  last  mystic  chapters,  and 
as  it  consists  of  but  a  few  verses  I  will  quote  it  entire. 

Verse  i.  "Verily  we  sent  down  the  Koran  on  the 
night  of  el-kadr. 

Verse  2.  "  And  what  shall  make  thee  understand  how 
excellent  the  night  of  el-kadr  is?  " 

Verse  3.  "  The  night  of  el-kadr  is  better  than  a  thou- 
sand months." 

Verse  4.  u  Therein  do  the  angels,  descend  and  the 
spirit  Gabriel  also,  by  the  permission  of  their  Lord,  with 
his  decrees  concerning  every  matter." 

Verse  5.     "  It  is  peace  until  the  rising  of  the  morn." 

The  first  day  of  the  following  month,  that  of  Shawwal, 
as  the  end  of  the  fast,  is  also  celebrated  as  a  fete  day  by 
all  Moslems.  On  this  day  the  sovereigns  of  Mohamme- 
dan lands  hold  official  receptions,  the  poor  are  fed  and  the 
graves  of  those  who  have  died  during  the  year  are  visited. 

On  the  9th  of  Rebi-ul-Ewel  in  all  Shiite  lands  the  anni- 
versary of  the  murder  of  the  Caliph  Omar  is  observed 
as  "  Omar  Kushan."  In  most  cities  on  that  day  an  effigy 
of  Omar  is  made  and  p'ut  up  in  a  public  place,  where  it 
is  exposed  to  the  insults  of  the  passers-by  all  day.  Firing 
is  heard  from  every  part  of  the  city.  "  They  are  killing 
Omar,"  you  will  be  told.  In  the  evening  the  effigy  is 
beheaded  and  burned  in  the  presence  of  a  large  crowd, 
to  the  great  horror  of  any  Sunnites  living  in  the  place, 
who,  however,  take  good  care  to  keep  in  the  house  that 
day.  In  1893  tne  Turkish  consul  general  in  Tabriz 
(a  Sunnite)  had  the  imprudence  to  drive  out  on  one  of 
the  anniversaries  of  Omar's  death.  As  he  passed  through 
the  streets  a  fanatical  Shiite  shot  one  of  the  carriage  horses 
of  the  hated  Sunnite. 

The  loth  of  Zilhidji  all  Mohammedans,  Sunnites  and 
Shiites  alike,  celebrate  the  Kurban  Bairam,  or  feast  of 


356         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

sacrifice,  commemorating,  as  elsewhere  described,  the  sac- 
rifice by  Abraham  of  his  son  Ishmael,  and  not  Isaac,  as 
told  in  the  Bible.  On  that  day  there  is  not  a  house  where 
sheep  are  not  sacrificed.  A  few  days  before  this  fete, 
flocks  of  sheep  are  driven  into  every  city.  In  Teheran 
the  shah  holds  a  salaam,  or  reception,  with  set  ceremo- 
nials. A  camel  is  sacrificed,  and  in  the  olden  times  the 
shah  himself  slaughtered  the  beast  and  then  had  the 
meat  sent  to  his  favourites. 

When  we  were  in  Meshed,  several  weeks  before  the 
Kurban  Bairam  a  camel  was  daily  led  through  the 
streets  draped  in  white  and  hung  all  over  with  little  mir- 
rors and  bits  of  bright  ribbons.  A  drum  and  fife  pre- 
ceded this  camel,  that  was  led  by  one  of  the  town  execu- 
tioners dressed  in  red.  This  was  the  "  shah's  camel," 
sent  to  be  sacrificed  in  the  city  of  Meshed  in  his  name. 
For  several  days  the  camel  was  led  through  the  bazaars 
and  streets  to  collect  money,  the  sum  going  to  the  execu- 
tioners. 

On  the  morning  of  the  Kurban  Bairam  the  camel  (in 
reality  a  broken-down  one,  not  the  original)  was  taken 
with  music  at  the  head  of  an  immense  procession  outside 
the  town,  where  it  was  most  barbarously  sacrificed.  The 
crowd  with  knives  in  their  hands  rushed  and  pushed  to 
get  a  chance  of  cutting  off  a  bit  of  flesh,  and  the  poor 
beast  was  literally  hacked  to  pieces  before  the  butcher 
could  do  his  work. 

The  1 8th  of  the  same  month  is  in  Persia  observed  as 
the  anniversary  of  the  day  when  by  the  murder  of  the 
Caliph  Osman  in  35  Hegira,  or  656  A.D.,  Ali's  succession 
to  the  caliphate  was  secured.  This  day  is  therefore  re- 
garded by  the  Shiites  as  a  day  of  reconciliation  and 
friendship.  Anyone  wishing  to  form  a  life  friendship 
goes  on  this  day  to  a  mullah  and  tells  him  of  his  inten- 
tion, the  mullah  solemnly  ratifying  the  friendship. 


MOURNING,  FASTS  AND  FEASTS      357 

Aside  from  these  days  the  anniversary  of  the  death  of 
every  imam  is  held  by  the  Persians  to  be  a  day  of  mourn- 
ing, but  this  is  in  practice  seldom  observed. 

The  gayest  of  all  the  fete  days  in  Persia  is  that  of 
No-ruz,  or  the  New  Year,  which  is  also  celebrated  by  the 
Armenians  as  Nobasart,  as  well  as  by  the  Jews,  This 
festival  dates  back,  according  to  Persian  traditions,  to  the 
time  of  the  fourth  mythical  king,  Jamshid,  who  lived 
before  the  Deluge  and  whose  reign — according  to  the 
same  source — lasted  for  seven  hundred  years.  He  es- 
tablished the  solar  year,  founded  Persepolis,  and  was  the 
inventor  of  the  plough  and  other  useful  implements. 

To  evade  the  accusation  made  by  the  Sunnites  that  in 
celebrating  No-ruz  they  are  observing  a  heathen  festival, 
the  Persians  claim  that  they  do  so  in  commemoration  of 
Ali's  succession  to  the  caliphate. 

However  that  may  be,  the  fact  remains  that  No-ruz 
is  the  brightest  and  gayest  of  all  their  festivals.  It  is 
celebrated  on  the  23d  of  March,  when  the  sun  enters  the 
sign  of  Aries  at  the  vernal  equinox.  It  is  truly  the  most 
rational  of  all  times  dating  the  beginning  of  a  new  year. 
All  nature  is  entering  upon  a  new  life.  The  trees  are 
budding,  the  nightingale  begins  its  song,  and  the  blue 
iris — that  with  the  crocus  are  the  first  wild  flowers  to  come 
up  fairly  from  under  the  snow — is  called  No-ruz-gul, 
new  year's  flower. 

Strange  to  say,  in  the  north  of  Persia  the  storks  that 
summer  there  may  be  expected  almost  without  fail  on 
that  day,  at  least  the  male  .bird.  He  always  arrives  a 
few  days  ahead  of  his  mate  and  seems  to  do  a  little  house 
cleaning  and  repairing  on  his  own  responsibility  before 
his  weary  spouse  of  other  years  comes  to  join  him.  On 
arriving  she  often  drops  down  into  their  old  nest  as  if 
worn  out  with  her  long  flight,  and  we  have  often  watched 
the  male  bird  bring  her  food  until  she  felt  strong  enough 


358         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

to  forage  for  herself.  Many  years'  observation  of  a 
family  of  storks  that  lived  in  a  high  plane  tree  in  our  back 
yard  revealed  most  interesting  habits  of  these  wise  birds, 
that  are  held  as  sacred  in  Persia  and  have  no  cause  to  fear 
man.  As  eagerly  as  spring  was  looked  for,  so  eagerly 
did  old  and  young  watch  for  the  coming  of  the  storks, 
and  the  picture  of  their  summer  life  rewarded  us  for  their 
study.  But  this  chapter  is  already  too  long,  and  we  must 
return  to  our  No-ruz. 

For  several  weeks  before  the  new  year,  preparations 
are  begun.  All  kinds  of  sweets  appear  in  the  shops,  cages 
with  bulbuls  are  hung  up,  flowers  and  greens  forced, 
house  cleaning  done,  and,  above  all  things,  new  clothes 
prepared.  Not  only  does  every  member  of  the  family 
have  at  least  one  new  garment,  but  it  is  the  time  when, 
from  the  shah  down,  each  one  gives  to  the  one  lower  than 
himself.  The  governor  general  awaits  with  impatience 
the  arrival  of  the  shah's  "  khalat,"  or  robe  of  honour. 
This  gift  assures  him  that  he  has  the  shah's  favour,  that 
his  offering  has  been  accepted,  and  that  unless  something 
untoward  happens  he  may  regard  the  office  as  his  for  an- 
other year.  The  governor  general  in  the  same  way  sends 
khalats  to  the  governors  and  others  under  him,  and  this 
continues  down  the  social  ladder,  where  each  householder 
gives  a  new  garment  to  his  servants,  and  even  they  do  the 
same  with  the  little  maid-of-all-work  who  helps  their 
wives  at  home. 

Dervishes  at  this  time  take  advantage  of  the  spirit  of 
giving  to  pitch  their  tent  in  front  of  some  great  man's 
door,  where  they  remain  until  they  get  their  "puli- 
khalat,"  or  money  for  a  robe,  their  new  year's  present. 

This  habit  of  giving  presents  has  a  deeper  significance 
than  meets  the  eye.  This  is  the  absence  in  most  cases 
of  fixed  wages.  Most  Persians  feed  their  servants  and 
"  give  them  presents "  in  lieu  of  stated  pay.  A  Persian 


MOURNING,  FASTS  AND  FEASTS      359 

servant  considers  himself  injured  if  he  does  not  receive 
presents,  and  prefers  a  situation  with  little  or  no  pay  but 
with  "anams "  to  one  where  the  pay  in  the  end  will  reach 
a  higher  total  but  where  there  are  no  "  anams." 

Presents  in  Persia  demand  return  presents,  according 
to  rank  and  means — from  more  than  the  money  value  of 
the  first  present  to  a  lamb  or  a  bunch  of  flowers. 

The  first  day  of  No-ruz  is  celebrated  with  great  joy. 
Everywhere  there  is  movement  and  life.  All  are  dressed 
in  new  clothes,  and  most  have  a  flower  to  offer  the  friend 
as  they  give  the  greeting,  "  Aydi-mobarak,"  may  your 
feast  be  blessed.  Men  may  be  seen  carrying  on  their  heads 
huge  wooden  trays  of  sweets  covered  with  rich  cloths. 
We  always  received  from  our  Persian  friends  trays  of 
sweets  varying  in  number  according  to  the  rank  of  the 
sender,  and  the  servants  who  brought  them  received  from 
us  an  "  anam  "  amounting  quite  to  the  price  of  what  their 
masters  had  sent. 

The  festivities  are  kept  up  for  thirteen  days,  during 
which  time  calls  are  made.  The  highest  officials  are 
called  on  the  first  day,  and  you  then  regulate  your  list  for 
the  following  days  according  to  rank.  In  every  house 
you  are  sure  to  find  large,  round  metal  trays  on  which 
barley,  or  pepper-grass,  canary  seed,  etc.,  is  sown  on  a 
thick  wet  felt.  The  sowing  is  so  timed  that  by  No-ruz 
day  the  green  is  one  or  two  inches  high,  and  these  har- 
bingers of  spring  are  among  the  pleasantest  memories  of 
No-ruz,  as  the  laurel  and  mistletoe  are  to  us  in  connec- 
tion with  Christmas. 

The  last,  or  thirteenth  day,  is  looked  upon  as  an  un- 
lucky day,  upon  which  some  misfortune  will  happen  to 
anyone  staying  at  home,  as,  for  instance,  an  earthquake, 
and  all  therefore  endeavour  to  leave  their  houses.  This 
gives  an  excuse  for  a  national  picnic,  that  is  so  dear  to 
the  heart  of  a  Persian.  No  idea  of  "  kaif  "  is  so  perfect 


360         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

to  his  mind  as  the  picture  of  carpets  spread  on  a  green 
under  the  shade  of  trees  that  grow  by  a  running  stream. 
The  kalian,  the  samovar,  a  little  fire  where  kabob  and 
pilau  are  cooked  fill  him  with  bliss.  From  the  elaborate 
hot  picnic  lunch  down  to  the  bread  and  cheese  and  fruit  of 
the  poor  the  Persians  love  to  eat  it  in  this  way  under  the 
blue  sky,  and  the  passing  stranger  gets  many  a  hospitable 
invitation  to  alight  and  "  eat  bread." 

With  No-ruz  begins  the  Persian  solar  year,  which  is 
regarded  only  in  astronomical  calculations,  etc.  The 
names  of  these  months  are  derived  from  the  names  of  the 
angel  who  was,  according  to  the  ancient  Persians,  the 
patron  of  each  month.  Each  month  had  its  special  privi- 
leges according  to  the  functions  of  its  guardian  angel; 
as,  for  instance,  "  Esfendermuz,"  the  angel  of  submission, 
to  whom  was  given  the  task  of  watching  over  the  earth 
and  caring  for  benevolent  women.  The  fifth  day  of  his 
month  was  called  "  Merd-heran,"  i.e.,  marrying.  On 
that  one  day  husbands  were  obliged  to  submit  themselves 
absolutely  to  the  wishes,  however  fantastical,  of  their 
wives.  Maidens,  too,  had  the  privilege  on  this  day  of 
choosing  for  a  husband  any  one  they  wished  from  among 
the  bachelors.  Each  month  had  some  such  distinguish- 
ing feature. 

The  solar  year  was  termed  "  Djelal,"  from  Djelal-ed- 
deen  Malek  Shah,  the  third  of  the  Seldjuk  dynasty. 
About  470  of  the  hegira  this  shah  made  a  change  in  the 
form  of  the  calendar  used  up  to  that  date  and  established 
the  solar  year. 

The  nomads  also  observe  the  lunar  months,  but  they 
name  them  differently.  They  simply  begin  from  No-ruz 
and  give  each  month  its  number,  "birenji,"  "  ekeinji,"  etc. 
This  method  of  counting  adopted  by  the  nomads,  or 
Turks,  as  the  Persians  call  them  because  of  their  Tartar 


MOURNING,  FASTS  AND  FEASTS     361 

origin,  is  therefore  known  in  Persia  as  "  the  Turkish  sys- 


tem." 


It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  solar  years  are  grouped 
into  a  cycle  of  twelve  years,  each  year  of  the  twelve  hav- 
ing a  distinct  name,  and  at  the  end  of  the  twelve  years  the 
rotation  is  recommenced.  These  names  also  are  of  Turk- 
ish derivation,  as,  "  Sichan-eel  "  (mouse  year)  ;  "Ad-eel" 
(ox  year)  ;  "  Pars-eel  "  (leopard)  ;  "  Tuschan-eel  "  (hare)  ; 
"  Lui-eel  "  (crocodile) ;  "  Elan-eel  "  (serpent) ;  "  Unt- 
eel  "  (horse) ;  "  Kuie-eel  "  (sheep) ;  "  Bechin-eel ." 
(ape);  "Dakuk-eel"  (hen);  "Eet-eel"  (dog);  and 
"Tonguz-eel"  (boar). 

In  all  official  documents,  contracts,  etc.,  the  date  is 
given  according  to  the  hegira  and  the  name  of  the  solar 
year  is  added.  As,  for  instance,  "given  in  the  year  1277, 
the  year  of  the  ape,"  or,  "  1278,  the  year  of  the  hen,"  etc. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  necessary  to  touch  upon  the  calen- 
dar that  is  so  important  in  the  Persian's  life.  This  gener- 
ally appears  just  before  No-ruz  and  is  called  Takvim. 
It  is  drawn  up  by  astronomers  and  astrologers,  who  con- 
tinue to  be  held  in  respect  by  the  shah  and  his  ministers, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  populace.  The  calendar  begins  with 
the  23d  of  March,  according  to  the  solar  year,  and 
parallel  to  it  are  carried  on  the  lunar  (Turkish)  Tartar, 
and  the  new  and  old  European  styles.  In  a  separate 
column  opposite  each  day  is  the  horoscope  for  that  date, 
indicating  the  lucky  and  unlucky  days:  what  days,  for 
instance,  are  auspicious  ones  for  starting  on  a  journey; 
for  the  purchase  of  a  horse;  for  the  cutting  of  a  new  gar- 
ment; for  marrying;  sending  children  to  school;  dis- 
patching couriers,  etc.  Even  the  hour  for  these  under- 
takings is  specified. 

Each  Persian  believes  implicitly  in  these  days,  and 
in  no  wise  begin  anything  of  importance  without 


362         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

consulting  the  calendar.  Wednesdays  are  considered 
especially  unlucky  days,  and  above  all  the  last  Wednes- 
day of  the  year. 

Each  day  and  every  hour  of  the  day  is  dedicated  to  a 
special  planet.  This  is  of  the  most  ancient  origin,  and 
it  is  interesting  to  note  that  from  whatever  day  the  various 
peoples  begin  their  week  the  order  of  the  names  of  the 
planets  remains  the  same. 

The  manner  of  thus  naming  the  days  may  be  traced 
through  the  ages  down  to  European  countries,  especially 
to  those  of  Latin  origin.  Monday  is  the  day  of  the  moon 
— Lunae  dies,  Lundi,  Lunedi,  Monday,  Montag,  etc. 
Tuesday,  dedicated  to  Mars — Martes  dies,  Martedi, 
Mardi,  etc.  Wednesday  (Mercury) — Mercurii  dies, 
Mercoledi,  Mercredi,  etc.  Thursday  (Jupiter) — Jovis 
dies,  Jovedi,  Jeudi,  etc.  In  the  same  way  Friday  is  dedi- 
cated to  Venus,  Saturday  to  Saturn  and  Sunday  to  the 
sun. 

The  sun  is  considered  the  most  auspicious  of  all  the 
planets.  Jupiter  presides  over  d/eeds  of  benevolence, 
property  owners  and  property;  opposed  to  him  is  Saturn. 
The  moon  is  of  good  omen  as  the  representative  of  the 
sun,  and  is  therefore  the  patroness  of  ambassadors,  dep- 
uties, emissaries,  etc.  Opposed  to  her  is  Mars.  Venus 
brings  little  happiness  in  marriages  and  love  affairs;  Mars 
is  opposed  to  her  also.  Jupiter  insures  success  in  all  mat- 
ters concerning  the  Shariat,  laws,  learning  and  all  enter- 
prises for  the  bettering  of  social  conditions.  Jupiter's 
opposite  is  Saturn.  Saturn  brings  great  misfortune, 
though  he  gives  success  in  building  and  agricultural 
operations,  as  well  as  victory  over  enemies.  Mars  brings 
little  evil,  but  is  propitious  in  wars  against  unbelievers, 
and  for  bloodletting,  which  latter  is  regularly  practised 
by  all  classes  in  Persia.  The  moon  is  opposed  to  Mars. 
Mercury  is  mixed,  having  good  and  evil  powers.  His 


MOURNING,  FASTS  AND  FEASTS      363 

influence  is  for  good  in  commercial  affairs,  accounts  and 
for  sending  children  to  school. 

Another  interesting  division  of  the  calendar  which  is 
popularly  observed,  is  into  periods  of  forty  days,  or 
"  chilleh."  Both  winter  and  summer  have  two  periods 
each  of  forty  days.  The  first  forty  days  of  each  season 
are  known  as  the  great  forties,  or  chilleh-bu-zurk,  as  the 
greatest  cold  and  greatest  heat  may  then  be  expected. 
The  second  forties  of  each  season  are  known  as  the  small 
forties,  or  chilleh-kuchik,  when  the  cold  and  heat  are 
modified.  The  great  forty  of  the  winter  season  begins 
the  24th  of  December  and  lasts  until  the  ad  of  February, 
while  the  small  forty  begins  with  the  3d  of  February  and 
also  lasts  forty  days.  The  summer  great  and  small  forties 
begin  respectively  with  June  23d  and  August  4th. 

The  hours  of  the  day  are  also  divided,  according  to 
our  ideas,  in  a  very  inconvenient  manner.  The  day  begins 
at  sunset,  which  is  the  form  of  reckoning  used  in  all 
Moslem  countries.  According  to  this  system  Sunday 
evening  after  sunset  is  the  beginning  of  Monday,  and  the 
hours  are  counted  from  that  time.  The  Persian  will 
say  two  or  three  hours  after  sunset.  Twelve  hours  after 
sunset  is  called  "  desteh,"  and  then  the  count  begins  again 
as  so  many  hours  after  desteh.  Then  follow  two  or  three 
hours  "  before  sunset."  This  is  a  most  complicated  sys- 
tem, for  the  hour  being  indicated  gives  you  no  exact  idea 
of  the  time  until  you  look  in  the  calendar  for  the  hour 
of  sunset  at  that  season.  The  timepieces  also  have  to  be 
changed  daily  so  as  to  be  set  at  twelve  as  the  sun  sets.  To 
be  exact  in  this  is  impossible  in  the  majority  of  cases,  and 
therefore  to  be  late  at  an  appointment  is  not  considered 
to  be  a  shame  by  Persians. 


CHAPTER  XX 

SHIITE  PILGRIMAGES  TO  THEIR  SACRED  PLACES  IN 

PERSIA 

Reason  of  Meshed's  being  formerly  Inaccessible  to  Europeans — His- 
tory of  Meshed — City  of  Tus — Sanabad — Meshed  at  the  Present 
Time — Sacred  Rights  of  Refuge,  or  "  Bast " — Causes  Giving  Rise  to 
this  Privilege — The  Shrine  of  Imam  Riza  as  a  "  Bast " — Muteveli 
Bashi,  Rezavi  and  Tulabi — Abuse  of  "  Bast " — Ways  of  Entering 
the  "  Bast  " — Conversion  of  Christians  to  Mohammedanism — Sani 
Kuhneh — The  Tomb  of  the  Imam — Mosque  of  Gauhar  Shad — Sani 
Nouv — Libraries — Income  and  Expenses  of  the  Shrine — Miracles — 
Stones  as  Pilgrims — Kum — Mosque  of  Fatima — Grave  of  the  Shahs. 

ASIDE  from  their  sacred  places  in  Turkey  the  Shiites 
have  their  shrines  in  Persia  as  well,  to  which  they  go  in 
large  numbers  every  year.  Among  such  is  one  in 
Meshed,  the  administrative  centre  of  Khorasan,  where 
in  the  ninth  century  of  our  era  Imam  Riza,  the  eighth 
Shiite  imam,  was  buried. 

We  lived  for  five  years  in  Meshed,  and  during  that  time 
had  occasion  to  become  somewhat  acquainted  with  the 
small  world  by  itself,  as  formed  by  the  large  staff  admin- 
istrating the  religious,  educational  and  financial  side  to 
this  great  shrine,  that  possesses  real  estate  designated  as 
"wakuf,"  or  wakuf  property.  Meshed,  the  capital  of 
Khorasan,  the  northeast  province  of  Persia,  has  only 
been  open  to  Europeans  since  the  Russian  occupation  of 
Transcaspia  and  the  establishment  of  European  con- 
sulates. Up  to  that  time  Meshed  was  only  visited  by 
occasional  travellers,  who  met  with  many  unpleasantnesses 
caused  by  the  extreme  fanaticism  of  the  population,  who 

364 


PILGRIMAGES   TO   SACRED    PLACES  365 

considered  the  mere  presence  of  Christians  as  polluting 
the  sacred  city.  The  European  powers  had  great  diffi- 
culty in  obtaining  the  consent  of  Persia  to  establish  con- 
sulates in  that  place. 

The  signification  of  the  word  Meshed  is  literally  wit- 
ness bearer,  or,  to  translate  broadly,  place  of  martyrdom. 
Though  it  is  more  than  probable  that  Imam  Riza  died 
a  natural  death,  the  popular  phantasy  attributes  to  him 
the  crown  of  martyrdom,  to  which  legend  the  Persian 
historians  have  yielded;  attributing  his  death  to  the  son 
of  Haroun-al-Rashid,  the  Caliph  Mamoun,  who  lived 
at  that  time  in  his  capital  Merv,  and  who  according  to 
this  story  killed  Imam  Riza  in  the  city  of  Tus.  This 
place,  once  a  large  city,  is  now  a  heap  of  ruins  on  which 
is  built  a  small  hamlet,  of  interest  to  us  only  on  account 
of  its  being  the  burial  place  of  the  immortal  creator  of 
the  Persian  epic,  Firdusi. 

Imam  Riza  was  buried  in  the  small  town  of  Sanabad, 
fifteen  miles  from  Tus,  and  gradually  pilgrims  began  to 
be  attracted  to  this  shrine,  their  numbers  yearly  increas- 
ing. The  Spanish  ambassador,  Rui  Gouzalaz  di  Kla- 
vecho,  sent  to  the  court  of  Timur  at  Samarcand  in  the 
year  1404,  found  on  the  site  of  Sanabad  a  city  and 
mosque  visited  by  many  pilgrims.  Gauhar  Shad,  the  wife 
of  Timur's  son,  Shah  Rukh,  built  over  the  tomb  of  the 
imam  a  magnificent  mosque,  which  is  still  standing.  Dur- 
ing the  sixteenth  century  the  little  hamlet  of  Sanabad 
grew  into  the  large  city  of  the  present  Meshed.  The 
rulers  of  Persia,  being  Shiites,  vied  with  each  other  in 
adorning  the  holy  place  and  offering  rich  gifts  to  the 
shrine.  How  much  they  were  influenced  in  doing  this 
by  a  desire  to  attract  pilgrims  here  rather  than  to  sacred 
places  in  Turkey,  it  is  difficult  to  say.  I  am,  however, 
of  the  opinion  that  there  was  more  of  a  religious  than  a 
political  motive  governing  their  deeds. 


366         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

At  the  present  time  Meshed  is  a  busy  commercial  cen- 
tre, carrying  on  large  trading  operations,  principally  with 
Russia.  Its  fixed  population  is  about  fifty  thousand,  but 
the  one  hundred  thousand  pilgrims'  annually  visiting 
Meshed  play  an  enormous  part  in  the  life  and  trade  of 
the  city.  They  not  only  bring  large  sums  of  money  to 
the  "  astaneh,"  or  shrine,  but  to  the  city  at  large.  Every- 
one regards  the  pilgrims  as  fair  booty,  beginning  from 
the  highest  ecclesiastic  in  the  astaneh  down  to  the  small- 
est shopkeeper.  As  in  all  other  places  of  pilgrims,  pro- 
fessions peculiar  to  their  needs  spring  up,  as  grave-digger 
and  stone-cutters  for  marking  the  monuments,  made  from 
stone  brought  from  the  mountains  near  the  town.  The 
bodies  carried  here  for  burial  bring  a  considerable  in- 
come to  the  astaneh,  as  the  plots  are  sold  at  prices 
varying  according  to  the  means  of  the  individual  and  the 
distance  of  the  grave  from  the  imam's  tomb.  The  prices 
range  from  several  hundred  dollars  down  to  five  or  even 
less. 

Meshed,  as  most  Persian  cities,  is  surrounded  by  walls 
and  towers  protected  on  the  outside  by  a  moat  across 
which  in  five  places  bridges  lead  to  the  city  gates.  Once 
inside  one  finds  dirty  streets  filled  with  rubbish,  decaying 
vegetables  thrown  out,  an  occasional  body  of  some  ani- 
mal left  to  its  fate — all  this,  with  the  great  crowding  dur- 
ing the  pilgrim  season  and  the  extensive  cemeteries  to 
be  found  inside  of  the  city  proper,  would  seem  to  be 
enough  to  render  the  town  very  unhealthful.  That  this 
is  not  the  case  must  be  attributed  to  the  remarkable  cli- 
mate, as  Meshed  has  an  altitude  of  over  3,000  feet,  with 
cold  winters  and  clear  skies. 

The  chief  street  of  the  city  passing  through  the  holy 
place,  called  the  "bast,"  is  known  as  the  Khiaband,  or 
avenue,  and  is  worthy  of  its  name.  It  is  exceedingly  wide, 
with  a  broad  stream  carrying  the  city  water  supply  flow- 


PILGRIMAGES   TO   SACRED    PLACES  367 

ing  through  the  middle,  on  both  sides  of  which  trees  are 
planted.  This  avenue  and  the  stream  of  water  are  filthy 
in  the  extreme,  but  the  pictures  that  unfold  themselves 
on  every  side  seem  to  beg  to  be  placed  on  canvas,  so  full 
are  they  of  picturesque  details  that  would  delight  an 
artist.  It  was  with  never-ceasing  interest  that  I  passed 
through  the  streets,  so  full  of  life  and  movement  and  local 
colouring. 

To  understand  the  peculiar  conditions  in  th'e  city  it  is 
necessary  to  acquaint  the  reader  with  the  Persian  recog- 
nition of  the  sacred  rights  of  refuge,  or  "  bast."  In  the 
Bible  we  read  of  the  cities  of  refuge  and  the  privileges 
pertaining  to  them.  In  defining  the  word  bast  we  can 
take  it  as  indicating  a  place  in  which  a  person  who  has 
committed  crimes,  even  murder,  may  remain  unmolested 
by  the  law  or  by  his  enemies.  This  ancient  custom  arose 
probably  owing  to  the  fact  that  in  the  despotic  countries 
many  were  punished  without  trial  and  in  a  moment  of 
anger,  and  therefore  these  basts  have  undoubtedly  been 
the  means  of  saving  many  innocent  lives. 

During  the  many  years  I  spent  in  Persia  my  house 
often  served  as  a  place  of  refuge,  and  often  I  have  been 
called  upon  to  act  as  intercessor  and  to  save  those  who 
had  cast  themselves  under  my  protection.  I  shall  relate 
one  such  instance.  One  morning  while  living  in  Meshed 
we  were  aroused  by  violent  firing,  apparently  in  our  large 
garden.  Hurriedly  dressing,  I  went  out,  to  find  all  the 
servants  gathered  at  a  respectful  distance  about  a  well- 
dressed  man,  who  had,  as  most  Persians,  a  dagger  at  his 
belt  and  a  revolver  in  his  hand.  He  was  standing  with 
his  back  to  a  wall ;  his  face  was  pale,  his  eyes  wild  and  he 
breathed  heavily,  looking  like  a  wild  animal  at  bay.  I 
went  up  to  him  and  demanded  his  dagger  and  revolver, 
which  he  immediately  gave  up.  He  was  unable  to  speak, 
and  I  ordered  him  removed  to  a  room  where  he  could  rest 


368         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

and  a  cup  of  tea  was  given  him.  Later  on  from  his  story 
it  appeared  that  he  had  been  accused,  quite  unjustly  as  it 
was  afterwards  proved,  of  an  intrigue  against  the  life  of 
the  governor  general,  who  had  ordered  him  arrested 
and  brought  dead  or  alive  to  his  presence.  He  had  es- 
caped over  the  flat  roofs  of  the  city,  followed  by  the 
firing  of  the  men  sent  to  take  him.  Running  and  jumping 
from  roof  to  roof,  scaling  ladders,  dashing  through  court- 
yards and  gardens  and  again  on  to  roofs,  closely  followed 
by  the  now  infuriated  servants  of  the  governor,  he  had 
at  last  reached  the  roof  of  our  stables,  from  which,  under 
a  shower  of  shots,  he  had  made  his  way  into  our  garden. 
Here  was  bast,  he  was  quite  safe.  The  crowd  held  back, 
and  though  looking  in  at  the  open  gates,  not  one  of  the 
governor  general's  men  would  enter  and  violate  the 
bast.  I  at  once  sent  to  the  governor  general,  and  only 
after  receiving  his  assurance  that  the  case  would  be 
fairly  tried  and  the  life  of  the  man  who  had  sought  my 
protection  spared  did  he  leave  my  house.  To  be  just  I 
must  add  that  the  Persian  official  kept  his  word ;  not  only 
was  the  case  justly  tried,  but  on  the  innocence  of  the 
young  man  being  proved  he  was  given  an  appointment 
in  the  administration  to  recompense  him  for  the  false 
accusation. 

But  if  the  bast  has  its  good  side,  there  is  a  reverse  to 
the  medal,  and  it  becomes  an  abuse  in  the  hands  of  crim- 
inals, thieves  and  debtors,  and  when,  as  in  Meshed,  the 
bast  is  a  small  town  in  itself  it  becomes  a  nest  of  evildoers. 

In  former  years,  up  to  the  fifties  of  the  past  century, 
basts  were  sown  broadcast  over  Persia.  Every  little 
mausoleum,  over  the  tomb  of  a  mor^e  or  less  doubtful 
descendant  of  an  imam  (Imam  Zadi),  served  as  a  bast. 
And  such  mausoleums  cover  all  Persia.  It  was  enough 
to  discover  somewhere  human  bones,  or,  as  it  occasionally 
happened,  bones  that  the  ignorant  supposed  were  such, 


PILGRIMAGES   TO   SACRED    PLACES  369 

while  in  reality  being  of  some  beast,  that  the  people 
should  consider  them  as  the  remains  of  some  holy  man, 
miracle-working  powers  attributed  to  them,  and  a  mosque 
was  built.  Such  a  great  number  of  refuges  gave  rise  to 
abuse  and  the  total  impossibility  of  crime  receiving  its 
just  punishment. 

The  minister  of  the  predecessor  of  Nasr-ed-Deen  Shah, 
Mohammed  Shah,  began  to  fight  against  this  condition 
of  things,  and  after  great  opposition  succeeded  in  limiting 
the  number  of  refuges.  Still,  down  to  the  present  time 
the  following  places  in  Persia  have  the  right  of  affording 
bast:  first,  the  chief  mosques  in  Meshed,  Kum  and  the 
mosque  of  Shah  Abdul  Azem  near  Teheran;  second, 
the  premises  of  the  foreign  ministers  and  consuls ;  third, 
certain  institutions,  as,  for  instance,  telegraph  stations  and 
artillery  barracks;  fourth,  stables.  The  last  two  are 
recognised  as  places  of  refuge  owing  to  the  popular  be- 
lief that  horses  belonging  to  a  man  who  has  failed  to 
respect  the  sacred  right  of  bast  will  bring  his  owner 
misfortune.  From  this  belief  arise  instances  that  we 
have  experienced,  when  men  escaping  from  the  hands 
of  justice  haVe  taken  refuge  under  the  shadow  of  one 
of  our  horses  on  the  march  or  in  camp. 

In  Meshed  the  bast  is  all  of  that  part  of  the  city  sur- 
rounding the  mosque  that  is  erected  over  trie  tomb  of 
Imam  Riza.  This  is  a  huge  pile  of  buildings,  including 
within  itself  schools,  a  theological  seminary  that  draws 
young  men  from  all  parts  of  Central  Asia,  quarters  for 
pilgrims  and  for  the  large  staff  that  administer  the 
shrine  and  their  servants,  public  baths,  hospital,  free 
dispensary,  bazaars,  caravanserais,  etc.,  and  the  whole 
of  this  great  area  is  considered  bast  and  is  under  the 
absolute  government  of  the  guardian  of  the  shrine,  or 
mutaveli  bashi,  who  jealously  guards  all  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  the  bast.  In  this  he  is  upheld  by  the  clergy, 


370         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

mullahs,  and  theological  students,  or  tulabs,  and  the  many 
Rezavi  descendants  of  the  imam,  or  those  who  consider 
themselves  as  such.  They  are  the  most  lawless  and  disso- 
lute of  the  inhabitants  of  the  city,  parasites  of  the  shrine 
at  the  expense  of  which  they  live.  Taking  advantage  of 
their  immunity  from  punishment,  as  the  descendants  of 
the  imam,  they  allow  themselves  all  sorts  of  license,  which 
is  generally  forgiven  them.  With  such  strong  backing 
the  mutaveli  bashi  is  a  great  power  in  the  life  of  the 
city,  and  the  bast  becomes  the  refuge  of  criminals  and 
evildoers,  and  of  debtors  who  live  year  after  year  quietly 
in  this  small  town  within  itself  until,  losing  patience,  the 
creditors  generally  come  to  some  understanding  with 
them,  preferring  to  receive  a  small  part  of  what  is  due 
than  none  at  all. 

I  remember  an  amusing  incident  in  this  connection. 
It  was  during  one  of  our  trips  up  the  Volga  at  the  season 
of  the  Nijni  Novgorod  fair.  A  large  Russian  merchant 
happened  to  be  on  the  steamer  with  us,  and  learning  that 
we  were  from  Persia  came  to  me  for  advice.  It  seems 
that  one  of  his  clients,  having  taken  goods  to  the  tune  of 
several  thousand  dollars,  was  living  in  Meshed  and  re- 
fused all  payment.  "  I  have  an  agent  there,"  continued 
the  merchant,  "  but  he  writes  that  he  can  do  nothing,  as 
my  man  lives  in  a  place  he  calls  bast.  What  do  I  care 
where  he  lives  I  Let  him  live  in  Paris,  if  he  wishes,  so 
long  as  he  pays  my  debt."  And  great  was  the  surprise 
and  then  dismay  of  my  fellow  traveller  when  I  explained 
to  him  the  full  significance  of  the  bast. 

The  entire  part  of  the  city  which  is  regarded  as  bast 
is  held  to  be  sacred,  and  no  one  of  another  religion  may 
enter  there  without  paying  dearly  for  his  rashness.  Dur- 
ing my  time  in  Meshed  a  European  who  attempted  to 
enter  was  severely  beaten  by  the  excited  crowd.  If  a 
stranger  unwittingly  passes  a  barrier  he  is  sure  to  be  soon 


ct 


PILGRIMAGES  TO   SACRED    PLACES  371 

recognised,  and  is  at  first  warned  politely,  but  if  he  per- 
sists he  is  forcibly  turned  out.  Christians  can  obtain 
entrance  in  two  equally  risky  ways.  First,  in  disguise, 
with  the  help  of  a  trusty  Mohammedan  companion;  but 
it  is  necessary  to  know  one  of  the  languages  of  the  Shiites 
and  the  order  of  prayers  and  ablutions,  to  which  whole 
volumes  of  Mohammedan  theological  works  are  devoted, 
and  the  casual  and  theoretical  acquaintance  of  which  is 
not  sufficient.  The  second  way,  to  express  the  desire  of 
embracing  the  Moslem  religion,  is  dangerous,  as  such 
would-be  proselytes  would  be  unable  to  escape  the 
clutches  of  the  mullahs,  to  whom  is  given  the  task  of  not 
only  teaching  him  the  tenets  of  the  new  religion,  but  to 
see  that  the  candidate  does  not  leave  the  confines  of  the 
bast  for  a  certain  period. 

I  knew  a  newpaper  correspondent  who  in  the  inter- 
ests of  his  paper  entered  the  bast  and  announced  the 
desire  of  embracing  the  Mohammedan  religion.  All 
went  well  until  in  the  confirmation  the  point  was  reached 
of  his  being  made  a  Moslem  in  fact — a  ceremony  that 
Mohammedans  generally  have  performed  in  childhood. 
That  night  the  frightened  correspondent  succeeded  in 
avoiding  the  vigilance  of  his  monitors  and  made  his  way 
to  us.  His  escape  was  the  more  serious  as  the  next  day 
was  the  first  of  the  month  of  Muharram,  when  all  Shiites 
are  electrified  with  fanaticism,  and  if  the  whereabouts  of 
the  unlucky  correspondent  were  discovered,  not  only  he 
but  all  the  few  Christians  in  Meshed  would  be  in  great 
danger.  Immediate  action  was  necessary.  Another 
complication  in  the  case  was  the  fact  of  the  city  gates  be- 
ing locked  at  sunset.  Fortunately  I  succ'eeded  in  getting 
the  gates  opened,  horses  hired,  and  before  morning  the 
correspondent,  more  dead  than  alive,  was  being  swiftly 
driven  on  the  road  to  Teheran,  rather  than  to  Askhabad, 
the  nearest  European  city,  and  to  which  we  knew  he 


372         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

would  be  suspected  of  fleeing.  All  this  was  carried  out 
in  perfect  secrecy,  and  the  next  morning  I  listened  with 
unmoved  face  to  the  most  fantastic  account  of  the  mys- 
terious disappearance  of  a  European  from  the  bast. 

Cases  of  Christians  espousing  the  Moslem  religion  are 
not  as  rar'e  as  one  might  suppose.  All  those  who  lived  in 
Teheran  about  fifteen  years  ago  will  remember  the  case 
of  a  whole  family  of  the  European  colony  going  over  to 
Mohammedanism,  an  incident  that  caused  much  talk  at 
the  time.  On  the  whole  it  is  probably  correct  to  say  that 
more  Christians  turn  Mohammedan  than  the  reverse.  Of 
course  these  conversions  are  generally  due  to  influences 
having  nothing  in  common  with  religious  convictions. 
Some  living  in  Persia  take  the  step  owing  to  a  love  affair 
that,  if  discovered,  would  be  fatal  to  both  parties;  oth- 
ers owing  to  pecuniary  inducements,  but  in  such  cases 
their  hopes  are  cruelly  disappointed,  as  the  Persian  always 
promises  a  great  deal  and  fulfils  nothing  under  such  cir- 
cumstances. A  third  cause  leading  foreigners  to  embrace 
Mohammedanism  is  to  escape  the  punishment  of  a  crime 
committed  in  their  native  land,  and  this  conversion  with 
its  escape  from  justice,  to  their  shame  be  it  said,  sanc- 
tioned by  the  European  countries  represented.  The  rene- 
gades gerierally  have  a  sad  fate.  The  Mohammedans 
naturally  mistrust  them,  and  they  end  their  days  strangers 
to  both  Christians  and  Mohammedans. 

And  so  the  bast  is  closed  to  Europeans.  In  spite  of  ob- 
stacles, however,  a  number  of  travellers  have  succeeded 
in  getting  inside.  Among  such  were  Fraser,  in  1822,  and 
O'Donovan,  in  1880.  But  the  interest  does  not  justify 
the  risks — especially  now  that  we  have  photographs  of 
the  interior  and  full  descriptions  of  the  place  and  cere- 
monies. We  can,  therefore,  not  only  picture  to  ourselves 
this  holy  of  holies,  but,  what  is  still  more  interesting,  the 
types  of  worshippers,  Chinese,  Indian,  Turkoman  and 
Circassian,  who  congregate  there.  It  is  said  that  the  scene 


in  the  mosque  in  which  repose  the  remains  of  the  imam 
is  particularly  effective  when  the  lights  of  thousands  of 
lamps  and  candles,  and  on  Fridays  electricity,  fall  upon 
the  congregation  formed  of  so  many  types  and  hues. 

The  bast  is  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram  entered  from 
the  large  avenue,  or  Khiaband.  Through  covered  ba- 
zaars one  turns  into  the  second  court,  "  Sani  Kuhneh,"  the 
ancient  court.  This  court  is  about  1,365  feet  long  and  630 
feet  wide,  entirely  paved  with  slabs  covering  the  graves 
of  persons  rich  enough  to  have  paid  for  the  privilege  of 
being  buried  here.  The  court  is  surrounded  by  a  two- 
storied  building  with  porticos,  while  in  the  centre  of  the 
court  is  a  fountain  in  the  form  of  a  kiosk  with  gilded 
dome,  the  water  of  which  serves  for  the  obligatory  ablu- 
tions. The  entire  fagade  is  adorned  with  enamelled 
bricks.  In  the  centre  of  each  wall  is  a  most  imposing 
arched  gateway,  surmounted  with  inscriptions  from  the 
Koran.  Over  the  eastern  portal  is  a  legend  stating  that 
it  was  erected  by  Shah  Abbas  II.,  in  1059  °f  tne  hegira. 
The  southern  portal  leads  to  the  holy  place  where  is 
found  the  tomb.  An  inscription  over  the  gateway  states 
that  in  1085  H.  Sultan  Hussein  built  the  portal,  which 
was  gilded  by  Nadir  Shah  with  gold  brought  from  a  vic- 
torious expedition  into  India.  Two  gilded  minarets  are 
here.  The  shrine  itself  is  in  a  large  chamber  paved  with 
glass  and  spread  with  rich  rugs.  The  walls  are  hung  with 
precious  armour,  bracelets  and  gold  ornaments  of  all 
kinds.  Three  doors  lead  into  this  shrine,  one  overlaid 
with  gold,  one  with  silver,  and  the  third  a  wooden  door, 
over  which  is  hung  a  rug  of  pearls.  The  tomb  is  imme- 
diately under  the  dome,  seventy-seven  feet  high,  gilded 
on  the  outside  and  surrounded  by  three  railings.  The 
first  is  of  steel  and  bears  no  inscription,  but  its  door  is 
covered  with  precious  stones.  'Between  the  first  and  second 
gratings  is  a  gilded  screen  made  to  protect  the  jewel- 
covered  door  of  the  second  railing,  which  is  also  of  steel, 


374         LIFE  IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST, 

and  at  its  four  corners  are  large  emeralds  set  in  gold 
plates.  The  third  railing  is  again  of  steel,  with  a  whole 
chapter  of  the  Koran  inscribed  upon  it.  The  space  be- 
tween the  railings  and  the  tomb  proper  is  about  one  and 
a  half  feet  wide  and  is  paved  with  glass. 

In  the  same  mosque  is  the  tomb  of  Haroun-al-Rashid 
and  many  Persian  princes  and  high  personages. 

Adjoining  is  the  library,  containing  over  3,500  volumes 
and  852  manuscripts,  among  which  it  is  said  are  some  of 
great  value. 

The  second  mosque  in  the  bast  is  called  Gauhar  Shad, 
which  also  has  a  large  court,  surrounded  by  buildings 
of  the  same  type  as  those  of  the  other  courts.  Finally, 
there  is  a  third  court,  called  the  Sani  Nouv,  or  new  court, 
upon  which  opens  the  school,  "medrasseh,"  built  by 
Mirza  Jaffar,  a  wealthy  Shiite  from  India  and  whose 
name  it  bears.  Sixty  mullahs  also  receive  an  allowance 
from  sums  bequeathed  by  him. 

Within  the  precincts  of  the  bast  are  to  be  found  other 
schools,  public  baths  and  dining  halls  where  the  pilgrims 
are  fed  free  of  charge  for  three  days.  It  is  estimated  that 
about  six  hundred  of  them  are  fed  daily  in  this  way.  The 
staff  of  officers  and  servants  number  about  two  thousand 
souls.  The  yearly  revenue  of  the  shrine  amounts  to  $100,- 
ooo,  and  aside  from  this  an  enormous  quantity  of  grain 
and  other  produce  is  received  from  the  land  owned  by 
the  shrine  and  which  is  scattered  throughout  the  country. 
The  income  of  the  shrine,  large  as  it  is,  would  be  much 
greater  if  it  were  not  for  various  forms  of  abuse.  The 
land  is  leased  to  various  descendants  of  the  imam,  to 
sayids,  or  favourites  of  the  guardian  of  the  shrine,  for 
far  less  than  its  real  value.  The  sums  received  are  spent 
on  the  maintenance  of  the  enormous  staff  of  the  shrine. 
The  mutaveli  bashi  has  assistants  called  simply  muta- 
velis,  and  after  them  a  long  string  of  diminishing  rank, 
as  in  a  court.  Of  the  $20,000  annual  revenue  ten  per  cent. 


PILGRIMAGES   TO   SACRED   PLACES  375 

goes  to  the  mutaveli  bashi,  fifty  per  cent,  to  the  remain- 
der of  the  staff,  lighting  and  repairs  take  ten  per  cent, 
for  destitute  pilgrims  seven  per  cent,  boarding  the  staff 
eight  per  cent,  feeding  the  pilgrims  seven  per  cent,  and 
the  balance  is  spent  on  various  unforeseen  expenses.  The 
accounts  are  kept  in  the  most  primitive  fashion,  and  it  is 
not  astonishing  that  a  yearly  deficit  is  the  result  It 
would  be  difficult  to  find  a  place  where  there  is  greater 
corruption,  intrigue,  or  more  immorality. 

Each  year  there  are  several  miraculous  cures  reported, 
blind  receive  their  sight,  deaf  hear  or  the  dumb  speak. 
While  we  were  in  Meshed  one  of  those  strange  cases 
occurred,  corroborated  by  "  eye  witnesses "  and  believed 
by  all  the  town,  though  the  imposture  must  have  been 
known.  A  loaded  camel  fell  in  the  street,  breaking  its 
leg.  The  owner  immediately  released  the  beast  of  its  load 
and  drove  it  painfully  hobbling  on  three  legs,  intending 
to  sell  it  to  the  nearest  butcher  for  meat  They  had  to 
pass  the  entrance  to  the  bast,  and  here  the  camel  quickly 
turned  and,  escaping  his  master,  entered  the  sacred  pre- 
cincts, and  his  faith  was  rewarded  by  the  broken  leg 
being  immediately  restored.  The  animal's  life  was  re- 
spected, and  when  we  left  Meshed  the  pampered  camel 
was  still  living  a  life  of  ease,  fed  with  all  sorts  of  delica- 
cies and  venerated  by  the  pilgrims. 

On  the  way  from  Askhabad  to  Meshed,  if  your  driver 
is  a  Moslem,  he  is  sure  to  tell  you  of  stone  pilgrims  in  the 
form  of  rocks  weighing  two  hundred  pounds  or  more, 
and  will  even  point  to  such  lying  by  the  roadside  and 
affirm  that  on  his  last  trip  those  identical  stones  were 
several  miles  farther  from  Meshed  than  now.  If  asked 
whether  he  himself  has  seen  them  in  actual  motion,  he 
will  reply  that  the  stones  travel  only  by  night,  or  that  it  is 
not  permitted  to  everyone  to  see  them  move,  or  some  such 
evasive  answer.  He  will  go  on  seriously  to  tell  you  that 
in  the  bast  are  many  such  stones  that  have  elected  to  re- 


376        LIFE  IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

main  tHere;  otHers  after  a  short  rest  become  uneasy,  and 
the  gate  being  open  they  begin  their  weary  homeward 
journey,  often  hundreds  of  miles.  And  in  fact  a  large 
collection  of  such  stones  is  shown  to  the  believers  in  the 
bast,  and  we  ourselves  often  saw  stones  that  had  no  busi- 
ness there  in  the  middle  of  the  busy  Khiaband,  and  were 
told  that  they  were  pilgrims  just  arriving  or  returning 
to  their  mountain  home.  Once  when  I  expressed  some 
incredulity  I  was  silenced  by  the  words,  "  Is  anything  too 
great  for  God  to  accomplish,  and  cannot  He  make  even 
the  stones  to  bear  witness  to  Him?  " 

There  are  several  other  mosques  in  Meshed,  but  they 
do  not  merit  particular  attention,  most  of  them  being 
built  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Aside  from  Meshed  there  are  several  other  places  in 
Persia  that  attract  pilgrims,  as,  for  instance,  the  city  of 
Kum,  some  two  hundred  miles  southwest  of  Teheran, 
where  the  sister  of  Imam  Riza,  Fatima,  called  Macum 
the  virgin,  is  buried.  Many  of  the  kings  of  Persia  are 
buried  here:  of  the  Safied  dynasty,  Shah  Sefi  I.,  Shah 
Abbas  II.  and  Shah  Solyman,  while  of  the  reigning  house 
of  Kajars  the  tomb  of  Fethei  Ali  Shah  is  found  here.  The 
grave  of  Fatima  is  in  a  light  and  very  beautiful  mosque 
surmounted  by  a  gilded  dome  and  flanked  by  four  min- 
arets. This  mosque,  being  a  royal  burying  place,  is  under 
the  special  protection  of  the  shah.  Here,  as  in  Meshed, 
is  a  numerous  staff  connected  with  the  shrine,  that  devours 
almost  the  entire  revenue  received  from  the  offerings  of 
the  faithful. 


CHAPTER  XXI 


Unchangeableness  of  Persian  Social  Life — The  Koran's  Principle  of 
an  "  Eye  for  an  Eye  " — Who  Can,  According  to  the  Shariat,  be  Ap- 
pointed as  Ju'dge — Shariat  and  Urf — Ministry  of  Justice — Civil  Law 
Proceedings — Mohassels — Box  of  Justice — Criminal  Laws  Accord- 
ing to  the  Koran — Punishments  Laid  Down  by  the  Shariat  for  Theft, 
Murder,  etc. — Punishments  According  to  Urf  for  the  Same  Crimes 
— Home-made  Punishments  for  Theft — Punishment  for  Spreading 
False  Reports,  for  Robbery  and  Physical  Injuries — Fatalism — Why  a 
Dull  Knife  is  Used  in  Beheading — Three  Forms  of  Murder  as  Ad- 
mitted by  the  Shariat — Price  of  Blood  for  Man,  Woman,  Slave,  and 
Unbeliever — Price  for  Physical  Injuries — Right  of  Retaliation  and 
Blood  Feuds — Right  of  Refuge — Instances  of  Blood  Feuds — Blood 
Feuds  among  Nomads  and  in  High  Life — Chief  Points  of  Difference 
in  Moslem  Laws  and  those  Recognised  by  Europeans. 

THE  social  life  of  the  Persians  is  to-day  what  it  was  ages 
ago;  it  is  as  if  the  customs  had  congealed  in  their  old 
forms,  and  if  some  changes  have  been  made  they  are  but 
superficial  ones.  The  old  spirit  of  the  Koran,  which 
governs  to  the  smallest  details  the  principles  of  life  and 
is  as  unchangeable  as  the  Koran  itself,  one  letter  of  which, 
according  to  Moslem  belief,  never  can  be  changed,  still 
remains.  This  explains  the  fact  that  what  amazed  the 
traveller  in  Persia  during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  still  causes  astonishment  in  our  day.  We  are 
astonished  by  the  absence  of  law,  which  is  replaced  by 
arbitrariness;  we  are  astonished  at  the  universal  bribery, 
the  cruel  punishments,  etc.  How  many  times  within  the 

377 


378         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

last  ten  years  have  I  seen  headless  bodies  lying  in  the 
public  squares  of  the  large  cities,  or  heads  hanging  over 
city  gates,  or  in  riding  through  the  bazaars  seen  a  man 
nailed  by  the  ear,  or  the  executioner  leading  a  criminal 
whose  cut-off  hand  lay  in  the  hat  in  which  he  collected 
money,  or  leading  a  thief  by  a  string  passed  through  the 
nostrils!  I  remember  one  day  when  my  wife  came  in 
great  excitement  to  my  study  and  told  me  of  a  murderer 
who  was  the  next  day  to  be  split  in  two  in  the  public 
square  near  us.  She  urged  me  to  interfere  and  have  the 
form  of  execution  changed  for  a  less  brutal  one.  To  save 
the  man's  life  would  be  impossible,  as  he  was  a  notorious 
criminal,  having,  it  was  said,  the  blood  of  thirteen  persons 
on  his  hands.  Although  having  no  right,  except  of  that 
of  humanity,  to  interfere  in  local  affairs,  I  went  to  the 
governor  general,  who  was  the  brother  of  the  then  reign- 
ing shah.  My  interview  with  him  was  not  without  in- 
terest. For  a  long  time  he  stoutly  defended  his  position, 
arguing  that  it  was  not  just  to  give  the  same  punishment 
to  a  man  who  had  committed  but  one  murder  as  to  a  man 
who  had  killed  many;  that  if  the  first  deserved  a  com- 
paratively painless  death  the  second  surely  should  fare 
worse.  He  also  argued  in  favour  of  the  good  moral  re- 
sult on  the  lawless  part  of  the  population  so  terrible  an 
execution  would  have.  After  listening  to  my  arguments 
the  only  one  that  seemed  to  impress  his  highness  was  the 
bad  effect  I  assured  him  such  a  deed  would  have  on  all 
European  countries,  whose  newspapers  would  certainly 
get  hold  of  this  fact.  This,  more  than  any  humane  mo- 
tive, finally  decided  him  to  cede  to  my  prayer  and  to 
order  the  execution  made  by  the  cannon,  which  is  con- 
sidered the  most  quick  and  painless  form. 

But  the  poor  criminal  was  certainly  unlucky,  or,  as 
the  people  said,  deserved  to  die  hard,  for  my  intercession 
did  not  turn  out  as  well  as  we  had  hoped.  According 
to  custom  the  condemned  man  is  placed  on  a  bench  high 


LAW   PROCEEDINGS   IN   PERSIA       379 

enough  to  bring  the  middle  of  his  body  on  a  level  with 
the  mouth  of  a  cannon.  He  is  then  firmly  strapped  in 
place  facing  the  cannon,  and  with  unbound  eyes  watches 
the  awful  preparations.  Death  is  of  course  instantaneous 
and  probably  painless,  the  pieces  flying  in  the  air  and 
dropping  for  miles  about,  as  we  ourselves  had  the  ill-luck 
of  seeing  when  out  riding  one  day,  a  ghastly  bit  falling 
almost  on  our  heads!  Well,  this  poor  man  was  probably 
badly  fastened,  for,  as  he  saw  the  torch  applied,  he  gave 
a  desperate  wrench  and  threw  himself  to  one  side,  so  that 
only  a  part  of  his  arm  was  blown  off.  The  executioner, 
probably  too  lazy  to  reload  the  cannon,  threw  him  down 
and  cut  off  his  head! 

In  Urumiah  I  remember  not  many  years  ago  several 
highwaymen  were  walled  up  and  then  buried  alive  in 
soft  lime. 

It  would  be  a  mistake  if  we  attributed  all  of  these  cases 
to  the  personal  cruelty  of  this  or  that  governor.  The  cause 
lies  deeper  hidden  in  the  fundamental  principles  of  the 
Koran  that  find  expression  in  the  laws  of  an  "  eye  for  an 
eye  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth  " ;  in  the  laws  of  retaliation  as 
the  means  of  cowering  evildoers. 

As  the  only  written  laws  of  the  Persians  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Shariat,  which  are  founded  upon  the  Koran, 
as  interpreted  by  the  theological  and  legal  commentators, 
judges  can  only  therefore  be  persons  who  have  made  a 
specialty  of  theological  studies.  These  are  found  in  the 
class  of  the  clergy  known  as  "  Mudjtaheids,"  whose  de- 
cisions, according  to  §hiite  belief,  cannot  be  disputed. 
They  are  regarded  as  infallible  on  whom  rests  the  in- 
spiration of  the  imams.  This,  at  least,  was  formerly  the 
case,  but  in  process  of  time  the  civil  powers  gradually 
assumed  certain  rights.  So  we  find  alongside  of  the  law 
according  to  the  Shariat  the  law  as  interpreted  by  the 
civil  powers.  This  last  is  generally  in  the  hands  of  indi- 
vidual persons  or  administrators,  whose  powers  are  prac- 


380     .    LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

tically  unlimited.  This  latter  form  of  legal  administra- 
tion, known  as  Urf,  is  not  accepted  by  the  Mudjtaheids, 
who  admit  of  no  interpretation  of  the  law  other  than  their 
own. 

The  law  proceedings  of  the  Urf  are  also  based  on  the 
Koran,  but  with  this  difference,  that,  being  unwritten,  it 
is  more  elastic  and  capable  of  a  more  merciful  interpre- 
tation of  the  merciless  decrees  of  the  Shariat — or  the  con- 
trary, according  to  the  circumstances.  The  laws  of  the 
Shariat  being  clear  and  precise  admit  of  no  change,  as 
any  deviation  is  held  to  be  a  sin.  In  this  respect  the  Urf 
presents  the  possibility  of  softening  punishments,  or 
changing  the  form  of  its  administration.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Urf  is  at  times  the  cause  of  great  abuse  and 
cruelty.  The  need  of  fixed  and  just  laws  led  to  the  forma- 
tion in  the  latter  half  of  the  last  century  of  a  special  port- 
folio, that  of  Minister  of  Justice,  who  could  act  as  the 
highest  appeal  in  deciding  civil  and  criminal  cases.  But 
neither  the  minister  nor  his  aids  have  the  right  of  being 
judges,  as  they  have  not  the  authority  of  the  Shariat  for 
acting  in  this  capacity,  nor  are  they  competent  in  cases 
of  jurisprudence,  not  having  received  a  theological  train- 
ing. So  we  return  to  the  same  problem,  and  we  find 
attached  as  jurisconsuls  to  the  ministry  members  of  the 
clergy  who  interpret  the  laws  as  of  old  according  to  the 
Shariat.  In  this  way  the  law  in  Persia  is  in  a  charmed 
circle  'out  of  which  it  cannot  break. 

In  some  cities  the  Ministry  of  Justice  has  its  repre- 
sentatives, known  as  "  divan  begs."  In  other  places  all 
the  power  in  criminal  or  civil  cases  alike  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  administrative  power,  whatever  it  may  be,  gov- 
ernor, chief  of  district,  etc.  Above  them  is  the  shah, 
but  if  we  in  Russia  have  the  old  saying,  "  Heaven  is  high 
and  to  the  Tsar  is  far,"  how  much  truer  is  this  in  Persia, 
and  how  much  the  fate  of  the  people  depends  upon  the 
personality  of  the  rulers! 


LAW  PROCEEDINGS   IN   PERSIA.     381 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  details  of  legal  proceedings 
in  Persia  I  shall  take  a  case  to  be  met  with  daily  and  shall 
follow  it  through  its  devious  courses. 

Let  us  take  a  Kerbelai  Ali  Mehmed  who  has  had  a 
controversy  with  Meshedi  Hussein.  Being  certain  of  the 
legality  of  his  cause,  Kerbelai  Ali  Mehmed  addresses 
himself  to  a  Mudjtaheid,  lays  the  case  before  him  and 
presents  his  proofs  and  witnesses.  It  is  by  no  means 
always  the  case  that  the  accused  be  present.  The  Mudjta- 
heid gives  his  conclusion  in  a  writ  that  admits  the  justice 
of  Kerbelai  Ali's  case.  The  plaintiff,  after  many  thanks 
and  kissing  the  robe  of  the  holy  man,  starts  out  for  the 
house  of  the  person  possessing  the  necessary  administrative 
power  of  carrying  out  the  writ.  Before,  however, 
reaching  this  person  our  friend  has  to  run  the  gauntlet 
of  a  whole  bodyguard  in  the  persons  of  servants,  valets, 
mohassels,  and  secretaries,  all  of  whom  take  an  active  in- 
terest in  his  case  and  are  rewarded  accordingly.  The  pres- 
ence of  the  administrative  official  being  at  last  reached, 
with  a  considerably  lightened  pocket  Kerbelai  presents 
the  writ.  The  official  respectfully  receives  the  paper  and 
first  presses  reverently  to  his  forehead  the  seal  of  the 
Mudjtaheid.  Then  reading  the  document  he  orders  that 
a  mohassel  be  sent  to  the  house  of  the  accused.  Mohassel 
signifies  literally  "  achiever."  It  is  a  name  of  policemen 
who  are  in  the  service  of  any  official  having  control  of 
an  administrative  department.  These  men  are  sent  to 
make  arrests,  or  to  search  a  house,  or  confiscate  property, 
or  collect  taxes.  Mohassels  are  generally  selected  from 
among  the  cleverest  of  the  ferashis,  such  men  as  in  Persia 
are  called  "  ziring,"  smart,  quick.  Arriving  at  the  house 
of  the  accused  Meshedi  Hussein,  the  mohassel  without 
any  hesitation  lays  hands  on  all  that  he  finds. 

If  he  sees  a  lamb  in  the  garden,  or  a  hen,  he  catches 
them  and  locks  them  in  some  convenient  storeroom  for  fu- 
ture use.  On  entering  a  house,  if  a  fine  rug  or  brass  uten- 


382         LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

sil  meet  his  eye,  they,  too,  follow  the  lamb  and  hen.  In  a 
word,  Meshedi  Hussein  for  the  time  being  at  least  ceases 
to  be  the  owner  of  his  own  property.  Under  the  circum- 
stances all  that  remains  for  him  to  do  is  to  endeavour  to 
"soften"  the  mohassel.  He  begins  by  professions  of  love 
and  fidelity  to  the  mohassel  in  particular  and  to  the  mas- 
ter and  chief  of  the  latter.  He  uses  flattering  titles,  as  "ex- 
cellency "  and  "  most  high  excellency."  But  the  mohas- 
sel remains  cold.  Then  Meshedi  Hussein  begins  to  en- 
large upon  the  baseness  of  Kerbelai  Ali  and  upon  his 
own  innate  honesty  and  nobility  of  character.  From  this 
subject  he  passes  on  to  that  of  the  hard  times  and  his  own 
poverty;  but  this  also  leaves  the  mohassel  untouched. 

Finally,  Meshedi  Hussein  comes  to  the  point  and  offers 
a  present  to  the  mohassel,  according  to  the  price  of  the 
case  in  hand,  the  present  varying  from  a  sheep  to  a  horse 
or  a  sum  of  money.  The  hitherto  firm  principles  of  the 
mohassel  show  evident  signs  of  wavering,  but  he  "  saves 
his  face  "  by  hinting  that  a  "  peshkesh,"  present,  might 
be  acceptable  to  his  patron.  Then  begins  a  conversation 
that  ends  in  fitting  presents  to  those  who  can  influence 
his  cause.  The  mohassel  leaves,  and  often  this  is  the  end 
of  the  case.  Occasionally,  however,  the  defendant  brings 
a  counter-accusation  showing  the  injustice  of  the  accusa- 
tion brought  against  him.  Having  paid  to  open  the  doors 
he,  too,  gets  a  Mudjtaheid  to  give  him  a  writ,  and  the 
whole  process  is  reversed.  This  is  in  the  end  the  worst 
turn  for  both  parties.  The  mohassel  is  sent  to  both  places, 
both  parties  are  dissatisfied,  and  finally  the  case,  passing 
through  many  expensive  stages,  goes  to  the  Ministry  of 
Justice.  Here  begins  an  endless  dragging  through  with 
peshkeshes,  that  ruin  both  sides.  If  one  or  the  other  of 
the  parties  has  the  luck  to  interest  a  very  influential  per- 
son on  his  side  there  is  hope  of  the  process  being  brought 
to  an  end,  though  not  necessarily  the  rightful  end.  In 


LAW   PROCEEDINGS    IN   PERSIA       383 

every  case  if  the  plaintiff  be  a  person  of  weight  the  proc- 
ess is  sure  to  be  decided  reasonably  soon  and  in  his 
favour. 

In  order  to  in  some  degree  neutralise  such  evils,  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  last  century  a  "  box  of  justice,"  Sunduki 
adalate,  was  established.  These  boxes,  resembling  our 
letter  boxes,  were  set  up  in  every  town  with  a  notice  call- 
ing upon  all  who  had  a  complaint  to  make  of  unjust 
punishment  or  injustice  of  any  kind  to  drop  in  this  box 
his  written  complaint.  These  complaints  were  to  be  sent 
to  Teheran  for  consideration.  The  boxes  did  not,  how- 
ever, achieve  the  hoped  for  results.  In  many  places  men 
were  placed  near  the  boxes,  nominally  for  their  pro- 
tection, but  in  reality  to  arrest  anyone  attempting  to  post 
a  petition.  Or  such  complaints  that  did  reach  Teheran 
were  either  decided  in  the  old  way,  or,  if  they  met  with 
impartial  treatment,  the  judgment  when  sent  back  was 
evaded  in  some  way  or  other.  And  so  this  reform 
dropped  out  of  use  of  itself,  swallowed  by  the  old  routine. 

All  criminal  cases,  except  such  as  are  against  the  faith 
or  public  peace  and  order,  are  prosecuted  only  if  the 
victim  or  his  friends  bring  plaint.  The  criminal  laws 
given  in  the  Koran  are  clear  and  short  and  always 
founded  on  the  old  Hebraic  principle  of  an  "  eye  for  an 
eye." 

The  punishment  for  theft  is  given  in  the  42d  verse 
of  the  5th  Sura  thus :  "  If  a  man  or  woman  steal,  cut  off 
their  hands,  in  retribution  for  that  which  they  have  com- 
mitted: this  is  an  exemplary  punishment  appointed  by 
God:  and  God  is  mighty  and  wise." 

The  94th  verse  of  the  4th  Sura  gives  the  punishment 
for  accidental  murder.  "  It  is  not  lawful  for  a  believer 
to  kill  a  believer  unless  it  happens  by  mistake:  and  whoso 
killeth  a  believer  by  mistake,  the  penalty  shall  be  the 
freeing  of  a  believer  from  slavery,  and  a  fine  to  be  paid 


384         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

to  the  family  of  the  deceased,  unless  they  remit  it  as  alms : 
and  if  the  slain  person  be  of  a  people  at  enmity  with  you, 
and  be  a  true  believer,  the  penalty  shall  be  the  freeing 
of  a  believer :  but,  if  he  be  of  a  people  in  confederacy  with 
you,  a  fine  to  be  paid  to  his  family,  and  the  freeing  of  a 
believer.  And  he  who  findeth  not  wherewith  to  do 
this,  shall  fast  two  months  consecutively,  as  a  pen- 
ance enjoined  from  God:  and  God  is  knowing  and 


wise." 


The  principle  of  the  price  of  blood  is  included  in  the 
i73d  verse  of  the  ad  Sura:  "O  true  believers,  the  law 
of  retaliation  is  ordained  you  for  the  slain :  the  free  shall 
die  for  the  free,  the  servant  for  the  servant,  and  a  woman 
for  a  woman :  but  he  whom  his  brother  shall  forgive  may 
be  prosecuted,  and  be  obliged  to  make  satisfaction  accord- 
ing to  what  is  just,  and  a  fine  shall  be  set  on  him  with 
humanity.  This  is  indulgence  from  your  Lord,  and 
mercy.  And  he  who  shall  transgress  after  this  by  killing 
the  murderer  shall  suffer  a  grievous  punishment." 

On  this  ground  the  law  permits  of  a  murderer  escaping 
punishment  if  the  relatives  accept  money  recompense. 
From  the  above  quotation  also  the  inference  is  drawn  by 
theologians  that  as  a  man  is  punished  for  the  murder  of 
a  man,  a  slave  for  a  slave,  etc.,  a  true  believer  cannot 
be  punished  for  the  murder  of  a  Christian. 

The  punishment  for  crimes  against  public  peace  and 
order  we  find  mentioned  in  the  37th  verse  of  the  5th  Sura : 
"  But  the  recompense  of  those  who  fight  against  God  and 
His  Apostle  and  study  to  act  corruptly  in  the  earth,  shall 
be,  that  they  shall  be  slain  or  crucified,  or  have  their  hands 
and  their  feet  cut  off  on  the  opposite  sides,  or  be  banished 
the  land.  This  shall  be  their  disgrace  in  this  world:  and 
in  the  next  world  they  shall  suffer  a  grievous  punishment, 
except  those  who  shall  repent  before  ye  prevail  upon 
them,  for  know  that  God  is  inclined  to  forgive  and  be 
merciful."  The  verses  I  have  quoted  are  the  basis  of  the 


LAW  PROCEEDINGS   IN   PERSIA      385 

teachings  of  the  Shariat  and  present  the  regulating  note 
of  the  Persian  codex  oF  to-day. 

Theft.  According  to  the  Shariat  every  theft,  so  long 
as  it  be  not  accompanied  by  robbery,  is  punishable  only 
on  the  complaint  of  the  victim.  Otherwise  a  thief,  though 
caught  in  the  act,  goes  unpunished.  Again,  theft  is  distin- 
guished as  simple  or  as  burglary.  The  former  is  never 
punishable  by  the  cutting  off  of  a  hand.  The  hand  is  cut 
off  only  in  cases  where  burglary  represents  a  money  loss 
of  one-fourth  of  a  drachm  of  gold.  The  Shariat  clearly 
defines  what  forms  of  theft  come  under  the  head  of  bur- 
glary, even  when  there  is  nothing  like  burglary  or  house- 
breaking  proper.  For  instance,  a  pickpocket  removing 
a  purse  from  the  pocket  of  an  overcoat  is  punished  as  for 
simple  theft;  but  if  he  extracted  it  from  the  pocket  of 
an  inner  garment,  it  is  regarded  as  burglary.  Equally, 
if  a  theft  is  committed  in  a  house  or  room  when  the  owners 
are  awake  it  is  regarded  as  burglary,  whereas  if  com- 
mitted while  the  owners  sleep  the  crime  is  punishable  as 
a  simple  theft. 

Cattle  stealing  from  the  pasture,  or  fruit  from  trees, 
are  held  as  simple  thefts.  In  case  several  commit  a  bur- 
glary together  the  one  who  actually  committed  the  deed 
is  alone  punished,  or  the  one  who  instigated  a  minor  to 
commit  a  burglary.  Stealing  food  in  famine  years  is  pun- 
ishable only  as  a  simple  theft,  even  though  burglary  were 
clearly  proved.  To  condemn  a  Moslem  for  burglary  the 
testimony  of  two  reliable  men  is  needed,  or  of  one  man  and 
two  women.  The  testimony  of  only  women,  however 
numerous,  is  not  admitted. 

The  first  commission  of  a  burglary  is  by  the  Shariat 
punished  by  the  amputation  of  the  four  ringers  of  the 
right  hand,  leaving  only  the  thumb.  We  thus  see  that  the 
Shariat  deals  very  strictly  with  stealing.  But  as  a  process 
may  be  begun  only  at  the  instance  of  the  one  whose  prop- 
erty has  been  stolen,  the  thief  generally  succeeds  in  com- 


386        LIFE   IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

ing  to  terms  by  the  payment  of  a  certain  sum  of  money 
or  by  returning  what  he  has  taken,  and  the  case  does  not 
go  to  court. 

If  the  case  once  gets  into  the  hands  of  the  Mudjtaheid, 
who  pronounces  sentence,  the  criminal  cannot  escape 
punishment  even  though  the  plaintiff  be  ready  to  with- 
draw his  accusation.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  plaintiff 
had  under  the  same  circumstances  addressed  himself  to 
the  civil  law,  the  thief  might  have  been  condemned  as  in 
the  former  case  according  to  the  Shariat,  or  simply  to  the 
bastinado. 

When  a  man  accuses  another  of  stealing,  the  former 
is  made  to  swear  that  his  accusation  is  just;  if  he  refuses, 
the  oath  is  then  administered  to  the  accused.  Persians 
seldom  refuse  to  swear  to  anything,  consoling  themselves 
with  the  popular  belief  that  a  false  oath  is  not  perjury 
if  during  the  process  of  taking  it  one  thinks  of  something 
else  to  which  one  could  truthfuly  swear.  If  a  man  of 
position  suspects  someone  of  stealing,  confession  is  often 
forced  by  resorting  to  torture. 

Small  thefts  are  sometimes  punished  by  passing  a  cord 
through  the  nostrils  of  the  prisoner,  and  the  executioner 
thus  leads  him  through  the  streets  and  bazaars  all  day,  and 
in  the  evening  conducts  him  outside  of  the  city  gates, 
which  he  is  forbidden  to  enter  again. 

Daring  burglaries  are  very  seldom  heard  of  in  Persia; 
minor  thefts  of  charcoal  or  provisions  from  a  storehouse 
seem  to  satisfy  the  thieves.  There  are  a  number  of  curi- 
ous customs  in  vogue  in  making  these  house  thieves  give 
up  their  spoils.  When  a  servant  is  suspected  the  master 
gathers  all  his  household  and  after  delivering  a  lecture 
on  the  dire  punishment  that  will  follow  detection  and 
safety  that  will  be  gained  if  the  goods  are  returned,  he 
proceeds  to  pour  a  basket  of  earth  on  to  the  floor  of  an 
empty  room.  Each  servant  is  told  to  secretly  do  the 
same.  If  the  articles  be  actually  taken  by  one  of  the 


LAW   PROCEEDINGS   IN   PERSIA       387 

household  they  are  certain  to  be  found  in  this  pile  of 
earth. 

Or  another  and  more  dreaded  means  is  resorted  to. 
A  mullah  is  called  in,  who  assembles  all  the  household, 
whom  he  makes  sit  in  a  circle  on  the  floor.  In  the  centre 
he  places  a  bowl  of  water  and  by  it  a  boy,  who  is  told  to 
look  intently  into  it.  The  mullah  begins  to  chant  certain 
incantations  calling  on  Solomon,  the  patron  of  all  spirits. 
These  are  supposed  to  be  kept  by  Solomon  under  lock 
and  key  and  are  only  let  out  by  him  when  he  is  invoked 
by  certain  words.  The  spirits  are  expected  to  come  up 
through  the  bowl  of  water  and  to  identify  the  thief.  Such 
a  terrible  determination  is,  however,  never  reached,  as 
the  thief,  frightened  nearly  to  death  by  the  mere  thought 
of  such  a  possibility,  generally  manages  at  the  last  moment 
to  drop  the  stolen  articles  where  they  are  found.  In 
both  cases,  once  the  property  is  restored,  the  matter 
is  forgotten  and  no  attempt  is  made  to  identify  the 
thief. 

On  the  whole  burglary  and  even  petty  thefts  are  exceed- 
ingly rare  in  Persia,  excepting  in  famine  years  or  during 
the  change  of  governors  or  at  some  moment  of  political 
disturbance.  And  one  must  bear  in  mind  that  with  the 
exception  of  Teheran  there  is  not  one  city  with  anything 
resembling  an  organised  police  service,  nor  are  any  meas- 
ures taken  for  the  preservation  of  public  safety,  other 
than  severe  punishment  meted  out  to  any  criminal  caught. 
The  safety  of  the  cities,  therefore,  depends  upon  the  repu- 
tation for  severity  of  the  governor. 

Although,  as  we  have  seen,  the  law  as  administered  by 
Urf  softens  those  of  the  Shariat,  still  in  extraordinary 
cases  the  former,  too,  are  carried  out  with  all  the  severity 
of  the  latter.  Such  are  repeated  offences,  disorders  that 
threaten  public  safety,  false  rumours  circulated  in  view 
of  increasing  discontent,  etc.  For  these  cases  the  law 
is  interpreted  in  all  its  severity,  tongues  that  circulated 


388        LIFE  IN   THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

the  reports  are  cut  out,  and  ears  that  hear  them  are  cut 
off,  etc. 

The  Urf  avoids  the  penalty  of  amputating  a  hand  when 
the  accused  is  a  woman,  but  it  admits  of  a  punishment 
even  more  cruel.  The  hand  is  placed  on  the  sill  of  a 
window,  the  heavy  sash  of  which  is  suddenly  let  fall,  often 
crushing  the  bones.  If  a  woman  is  condemned  to  stripes 
she  is  put  in  a  bag  and  beaten.  This  latter  punishment 
is  only  administered  by  the  law  according  to  the  Urf. 

The  Shariat  recommends  the  executioners  to  hold  the 
amputated  part  in  boiling  oil,  which  is  invariably  done. 

Theft  accompanied  by  murder  is  judged  by  the  civil 
authorities  according  to  the  Urf.  The  punishment  ac- 
cording to  the  Shariat  in  such  cases  is  exceedingly  severe, 
including  amputation  of  extremities,  beheading  and 
crucifixion.  In  cases  of  relapse,  or  fresh  offence,  the 
successive  punishments  are  given,  first  amputation,  then 
crucifixion  for  the  second  offence.  The  latter  punishment 
has,  however,  since  the  eighteenth  century,  been  abol- 
ished in  favour  of  walling  up  the  prisoner  in  lime. 
During  the  Kurdish  invasion  of  Urumiah  of  1880  in- 
stances of  crucifixion  were,  however,  seen.  Such  mediae- 
val punishments  are  meted  out  to  highway  robbers,  armed 
insurgents,  etc.  When  Turkomans  were  caught  in  raiding 
on  Persian  territory  and  carrying  off  women,  which  was 
of  frequent  occurrence  before  our  occupation  of  Trans- 
caspia,  they  were  fired  from  cannons,  hacked  in  pieces, 
or  crucified.  The  brave  sons  of  the  steppes  met  their 
death  calmly,  expressing  loudly  up  to  the  last  moment 
their  hatred  of  their  torturers  and  their  scorn  of  the  death 
awaiting  them. 

It  must  not  b'e  supposed,  however,  that  these  extreme 
punishments  are  carried  out  in  all  cases  justifying  them 
by  the  law.  Abuse  is  the  more  prevalent  as  the  legal  and 
administrative  functions  are  to  be  found  in  one  and  the 


LAW  PROCEEDINGS   IN   PERSIA       389 

same  person,  the  governor.  Bribery  and  influence  eacK 
has  its  turn,  and  many  are  the  crimes  that  remain 
unpunished  and  the  criminals  who  succeed  in  "  escap- 
ing." 

There  are  few  prisons,  as  we  understand  them,  in  Per- 
sia. Each  governor,  noble,  or  individual  of  influence 
has  a  room  or  rooms  or  stables  in  which  he  confines  his 
prisoners.  To  make  escape  more  difficult  these  are  gen- 
erally chained  in  a  long  string  to  each  other.  Thick 
rings  are  soldered  about  the  neck  and  a  heavy  chain  con- 
nects each  man  to  his  companion,  or  they  are  chained  to 
the  wall.  There  are  no  rations  regularly  given  out,  but 
the  prisoners  are  fed  by  their  friends,  or  they  only  get 
whatever  the  one  by  whose  order  they  are  arrested  chooses 
to  send  them.  Sometimes  men  are  kept  for  a  year  or  more 
in  these  filthy  places,  but  long  imprisonments  are  usually 
avoided.  If  the  prisoner  has  means  it  is  comparatively 
easy  to  escape. 

When  in  Meshed  we  often  passed  the  square  in  front  of 
the  residence  of  the  governor  general,  where  there  was 
a  large  basin  of  water.  Summer  afternoons  we  frequently 
saw  a  string  of  chained  prisoners  led  out  to  bathe  in  that 
public  place.  They  had  rags  wound  around  the  rings  to 
keep  them  from  chafing  the  neck,  and  as  they  walked  each 
painfully  held  up  the  chain  to  ease  the  great  weight  about 
the  neck.  As  only  a  few  could  get  into  the  basin  at  a 
time,  and  there  were  perhaps  a  dozen  or  more  chained  to- 
gether, those  not  in  the  water  had  to  kneel  or  almost  lie 
down  on  the  edge  of  the  basin  to  give  enough  length  of 
chain  for  their  companion  to  get  down  into  the  water. 
The  poor  wretches,  with  a  sickly  prison  pallor,  some  of 
ithem  old  and  others  mere  boys,  always  begged  pitifully  as 
we  passed  for  money  to  buy  bread.  We  had  little  satisfac- 
tion in  giving,  however,  for  we  were  never  sure  that  they 
were  allowed  to  keep  the  money.  The  firmness  with 


390         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

which  many  meet  a  painful  death  is  largely  explained 
by  their  deep  belief  in  fate — kismet.  All  Moslems  be- 
lieve that  we  cannot  avoid  our  fate,  and  they  therefore 
stoically  accept  whatever  comes.  "  The  fate  of  every  man 
have  we  bound  about  his  neck,"  we  read  in  the  iyth  Sura 
of  the  Koran.  Among  other  grounds  for  this  belief  we 
find  in  the  3d  Sura  and  I39th  verse  of  the  Koran  the 
following  words:  "No  soul  can  die  except  by  the  per- 
mission of  God,  according  to  what  is  written  in  the  book 
containing  the  determination  of  things."  Also  in  the 
1 4th  Sura  the  4th  verse,  "  for  God  causeth  to  err  whom  he 
pleaseth,  and  directeth  whom  he  pleaseth,  and  He  is  the 
Mighty  and  Wise." 

On  the  eve  of  execution  the  condemned  are  well  fed 
with  "pilaw"  and  when  led  to  the  spot  they  often  ask 
permission  to  smoke  a  pipe,  and  after  repeating  what  to 
them  corresponds  to  our  creed  turn  to  the  executioner, 
saying,  "  Bismillah " — in  God's  name.  In  passing  I 
must  mention  a  popular  superstition  to  the  effect  that  the 
knife  used  in  beheading  will  find  itself  victims  until  it 
becomes  dull.  Hence  dull  knives  are  always  used,  hoping 
thereby  to  lessen  the  number  of  executions! 

Murder.  The  Shariat  recognises  three  degrees:  pre- 
meditated, unpremeditated,  and  quasi-premeditated,  or 
"  katli-ehaseh."  The  definition  of  the  first  two  corre- 
sponds to  those  given  by  European  laws.  Under  the 
head  of  quasi-premeditated  are  included  cases  where  a 
man  is  killed  by  some  act  which  was  not,  however,  com- 
mitted with  the  intention  of  killing.  For  instance,  if  in 
condemning  a  man  to  a  punishment  that  others  had  suf- 
fered without  fatal  consequences  the  man  should  die 
while  undergoing  said  punishment,  or  in  consequence  of 
it,  the  one  ordering  the  punishment  could  be  condemned 
for  "quasi-premeditated  murder." 

Premeditated  murder  may  be  direct,  by  a  weapon,  poi- 
soning, strangling,  and  so  forth,  or  indirect,  when  death 


was  brought  about  by  a  conscious  plan  of  action,  as  in 
digging  a  well  in  a  spot  where  the  victim  was  expected 
to  pass,  and  the  fall  caused  death. 

All  three  forms  of  murder,  if  they  are  not  accompanied 
by  robbery  or  theft,  are  punishable  only  at  the  complaint 
of  the  family  or  heirs  of  the  person  killed.  These  may 
demand  the  punishment  of  the  murderer  either  according 
to  the  law  of  retaliation  or  by  payment  of  blood  money. 

If  by  the  law  of  retaliation,  it  is  done  literally  on  the 
principle  of  an  "  eye  for  an  eye,"  but  always  must  be  sub- 
ject to  three  conditions:  first,  the  murdered  man  must 
belong  to  the  same  religion  as  the  murderer;  second,  both 
must  belong  to  the  same  social  class,  i.e.,  free  or  bond- 
men; third,  if  the  murdered  man  is  not  the  son  of  the 
murderer. 

From  this  it  follows  that  by  killing  a  man  of  another 
religion  a  Moslem  can  by  no  means,  according  to  the 
Shariat,  suffer  the  death  penalty  any  more  than  a  free 
man  can  be  so  punished  for  killing  a  slave.  It  is  natural, 
therefore,  that  the  masses  in  Persia  regard  the  killing  of 
an  unbeliever  to  be  a  light  matter.  The  higher  authori- 
ties are  supposed  to  consider  it  differently,  but  my  ex- 
perience of  many  years  of  criminal  cases  in  Persia  is  that 
all  local  authorities,  in  the  shape  of  governors,  etc.,  do 
regard  it  lightly  and  always  try  to  avoid  punishing  a 
Moslem  for  the  death  of  a  non-Moslem.  It  is  always 
easy  for  them  to  invent  extenuating  circumstances  for  the 
murder.  According  to  the  Shariat  trie  murder  of  an  un- 
believer is  justifiable  if  by  the  testimony  of  two  Moham- 
medan witnesses  he  is  proved  to  have  insulted  the  true 
faith.  Such  witnesses  are  easy  to  obtain,  for  according 
to  the  popular  belief  it  is  no  sin  to  bear  false  witness 
against  unbelievers.  To  obtain  justice  for  the  murder  of 
a  non-Moslem  in  Persia  is  therefore  always  a  very  dif- 
ficult matter. 

In  case  of  physical  injuries  the  Shariat  permits  the 


392         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

laws  of  retaliation,  subject  to  the  same  conditions  as  for 
murder.  In  judging  these  cases  special  attention  is  given 
to  the  results  of  the  wounds.  If,  for  instance,  a  ringer  is 
cut  off  and  inflammation  that  follows  causes  the  loss  of 
the  whole  hand,  the  law  permits  the  sufferer  to  demand 
the  entire  hand  of  the  one  who  wounded  him. 

As  the  law  of  retaliation,  based  on  an  "  eye  for  an  eye," 
could  be  carried  to  extremes,  it  has  been  found  expedient 
in  practice  to  replace  it  by  that  of  the  "  price  of  blood," 
which  is  resorted  to  with  the  consent  of  the  plaintiff,  or, 
in  murder,  that  of  the  relatives  or  heirs  of  the  man  killed. 
In  the  teachings  concerning  the  "  price  of  blood  "  we  find 
the  principle  of  retaliation  is  followed,  and  the  price  de- 
manded is  nearly  as  possible  according  to  the  amount  of 
injury  received  as  defined  by  the  Shariat.  For  instance, 
the  price  of  blood  for  the  murder  of  a  woman  is  half  that 
demanded  for  killing  a  man.  On  this  principle,  if  the 
relatives  of  a  woman  do  not  consent  to  receiving  the  price 
of  her  blood,  but  insist  on  the  execution  of  the  murderer, 
they  must  pay  to  the  murderer's  heirs  half  the  sum  of  the 
price  of  a  man's  blood.  Otherwise  the  crime  of  murder- 
ing a  woman  would  have  been  punished  equally  with  that 
of  the  murder  of  a  manl 

A  case  illustrating  this  principle  took  place  in  Tabriz 
some  thirty  years  ago.  During  the  absence  of  a  Persian 
official  from  his  home  his  steward  courted  the  master's 
wife.  The  woman,  refusing  his  advances,  threatened  the 
steward  that  she  would  complain  to  her  husband  on  the 
latter's  return.  The  steward  then  killed  his  master's  wife. 
When  the  husband  returned  he  was  able  to  prove  the 
guilt  of  his  servant,  whose  execution  he  demanded.  This, 
being  the  extreme  penalty  for  the  murder  of  a  man,  could 
not  be  carried  out  in  strict  observation  of  the  law  of 
retaliation.  The  husband  therefore  paid  to  the  heirs  of 
his  steward  half  the  money  price  of  a  man's  blood  and 


LAW  PROCEEDINGS   IN   PERSIA       393 

then  the  civil  powers  condemned  the  steward  to  death, 
which  sentence  was  carried  out.  From  this  principle  it 
follows  that  a  man  who  has  killed  two  women  can  be 
condemned  to  death,  as  in  this  case  equality  is  not  in- 
fringed. 

If  the  murder  of  a  woman  be  committed  by  several 
men,  the  friends  can  demand  the  death  of  but  one  of  the 
murderers,  and  always  by  paying  the  difference  in  the 
price  of  blood,  and  the  amount  must  be  paid  before  the 
death  sentence  can  be  carried  out. 

On  the  same  ground,  if  two  women  murder  a  man  the 
death  of  both  can  be  demanded;  or  if  the  relatives  con- 
sent to  blood  money,  each  woman  is  to  pay  half  of  the 
price  of  a  man's  blood. 

The  same  principle  is  carried  out  regarding  injuries. 
The  sufferer  may  instead  of  demanding  satisfaction  ac- 
cording to  the  law  of  retaliation  consent  to  the  price  of 
blood,  under  conditions  similar  to  those  laid  down  for 
murder.  In  the  latter  case  the  part  of  the  body  paid  for 
is  considered  as  the  property  of  the  one  who  has  paid 
the  money.  If,  for  example,  A  cuts  off  a  part  of  the  ear 
of  B  and  pays  the  sum  of  money  demanded.  In  the 
meantime  B  has  had  the  bit  of  ear  sewed  on  and  the 
wound  has  healed.  In  this  case  A  has  a  right  to  demand 
that  the  money  paid  be  returned  to  him  or  that  the  bit 
of  ear  be  removed! 

The  sum  demanded  as  the  price  of  blood  is  decided 
according  to  the  category  of  murder  under  which  the 
case  is  judged,  that  is,  premeditated,  unpremeditated,  or 
quasi-premeditated. 

The  price  of  blood  for  the  premeditated  murder  of  a 
free  Moslem  is  given  by  the  Shariat  as  100  camels  of  not 
less  than  five  years  of  age  each;  or  200  cows;  or  100  suits 
of  clothes  made  of  the  Yemen  stuff;  or  1,000  dinars  in 
money,  equal  to  about  $1,500. 


394         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

For  a  quasi-premeditated  murder  the  price  is  a  little 
less:  33  she-camels  of  three  years  of  age  and  34  of  five 
years,  or  $1,050  in  money,  and  the  payment  is  allowed  to 
be  made  during  a  period  of  two  years. 

For  unpremeditated  murder  the  price  is  20  yearling 
she-camels,  20  she-camels  two  years  old,  30  she-camels 
three  years  old,  and  30  camels  two  years  old,  or  in  money 
about  $600.  The  peculiarity  in  this  case  is  that  the  price 
of  blood  for  unpremeditated  murder  is  not  paid  by  the 
person  'whose  act  caused  the  murder  but  by  the  latter's 
male  relatives  or  his  future  heirs.  The  Shariat  does 
not  consider  itself  justified  in  laying  a  penalty  on  a  man 
whom  it  does  not  hold  guilty,  while  admitting  the 
right  of  the  relatives  of  the  dead  man  to  demand  dam- 
ages. 

In  all  the  above  mentioned  cases  the  price  of  a  woman's 
blood  remains  half  that  of  a  man.  The  price  of  the  blood 
of  a  Jew,  Christian,  or  Gaber  is  according  to  some  legal 
authorities  fixed  as  one-thirteenth  of  the  price  of  a  free 
Moslem,  according  to  others,  one-eighth. 

The  price  of  the  blood  of  a  slave  is  not  clearly  defined, 
but  must  in  no  case  more  than  equal  that  of  a  free  man  of 
the  same  religion. 

The  money  paid  for  the  price  of  blood  is  to  be  divided 
among  the  heirs  according  to  the  usual  laws  of  inherit- 
ance. In  cases  where  the  murder  was  premeditated,  the 
female  heirs  get  their  share  of  the  money,  but  when  the 
murder  was  unpremeditated,  women  do  not  share  in  the 
payment  of  the  blood  of  the  man  killed  by  their  relative. 

The  price  of  blood  in  case  of  physical  injuries  is  also 
very  strictly  laid  down  in  the  Shariat,  and  on  the  same 
principle,  but  without  going  into  detail,  the  following 
is  the  general  price. 

For  depriving  a  man  of  both  eyes,  nose,  ears,  lips,  teeth, 
tongue,  extremities,  breaking  the  jaw  and  backbone,  the 
accused  is  sentenced  to  suffer  the  same  according  to 


LAW   PROCEEDINGS    IN    PERSIA       395 

the  law  of  retaliation  or  to  the  price  of  blood  as  for 
murder. 

For  depriving  a  man  of  one  eye,  ear,  lips  and  beard, 
half  the  price  of  a  man's  blood. 

For  the  loss  of  one  finger  or  toe,  one-tenth  of  the  price 
of  blood  may  be  demanded. 

For  the  loss  of  parts  of  the  extremities,  the  price  differs 
according  to  the  part  lost,  as  the  loss  of  half  a  finger  is 
fixed  as  worth  one-twentieth  of  the  entire  price  of  blood. 
Breaking  a  part  of  one  of  the  extremities,  one-fifth  the 
price.  Wounds,  according  to  severity,  from  one-half  to 
one-tenth  of  the  price  of  the  entire  member.  A  blow 
in  the  face  not  followed  by  blood,  one  dinar  and  a 
half. 

There  are  also  detailed  laws  for  damages  caused  by 
carelessness.  For  example,  a  horseman  is  responsible 
while  on  his  horse's  back  for  any  injury  the  horse  may 
do  with  his  head  or  fore  legs.  He  is  not,  however,  re- 
sponsible for  injuries  the  horse's  hind  legs  may  cause, 
unless  at  that  moment  he  is  walking  and  leading  his  horse. 
The  owner  of  a  wall  that  falls  down  and  crushes  a  man 
is  responsible  only  in  the  case  of  the  wall  not  being  built 
on  his  own  land. 

In  actual  life  we  find  the  price  of  blood  less  than  that 
fixed  by  the  Koran  and  subject  to  the  consent  of  the 
parties  interested;  while  the  letter  of  the  Koran  is  ful- 
filled by  the  following  means :  A  kills  B.  According  to 
the  Koran,  A  is  obliged  to  pay  the  sum  of  $1,500,  whereas 
his  entire  property  consists  of  a  pair  of  oxen,  a  few  sheep, 
a  hovel  and  miserable  household  furniture.  If  a  mutual 
agreement  be  made  an  assessor  is  called  in,  who  values 
his  property  at  $1,500,  though  it  is  clearly  worth  much 
less,  and  in  this  way  the  letter  of  the  law  is  fulfilled.  An- 
other factor  in  bringing  about  peaceful  conclusions  is 
the  sacred  right  of  refuge,  which  has  been  treated  in  de- 
tail in  another  chapter.  The  criminal,  sure  of  safety,  re- 


396        LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

mains  if  need  be  a  year  or  more  while  negotiations  are 
being  carried  out,  and  when  they  are  terminated  and  the 
price  paid  the  murderer  can  leave  his  refuge  in  freedom. 

If  a  criminal  escapes  into  refuge  leaving  property,  it 
is  at  once  arrested  or  simply  seized  by  the  heirs  of  the 
murdered  man.  If  others  were  implicated  in  the  mur- 
der, their  goods  also  are  seized.  This  leads  to  the  result 
that  a  murder  sometimes  causes  a  village  to  be  almost 
deserted.  Once  in  the  eighties  I  was  in  the  small  village 
of  Arvanie-keif,  near  Teheran,  consisting  of  some  five 
hundred  houses.  On  approaching,  it  seemed  as  if  a  pesti- 
lence had  swept  through  it.  There  were  not  over  fifteen 
or  twenty  male  villagers  left,  and  these  were  old  or  infirm. 
The  houses  were  empty,  doors  open  and  streets  lifeless. 
Inquiries  showed  that  a  month  before  my  arrival,  two  of 
the  villagers  were  killed  in  a  fight.  All  those  in  any  way 
directly  concerned  in  the  affair  fled  to  refuge.  The 
relatives  of  those  killed  demanded  the  arrest  of  the  prop- 
erty of  the  murderers.  The  latter,  knowing  of  the  com- 
plaint, had  fled  with  such  property  as  they  could  carry 
with  them.  In  this  way  a  village  of  some  five  hundred 
houses  was  almost  deserted. 

But  therQ  are  other  instances.  A  man  Remains  in 
refuge  a  year,  perhaps  two  or  more,  without  the  relatives 
of  his  victim  consenting  to  a  settlement.  He  then  seizes 
a  convenient  moment  and  escapes,  going  to  some  distant 
city,  perhaps  Meshed,  a  large  portion  of  which  is  regarded 
as  "  bast,"  refuge.  But  he  can  never  consider  himself 
as  safe,  and  often  falls  at  the  hands  of  a  revengeful  rela- 
tive of  his  victim  twenty  or  more  years  after  the  crime 
was  committed. 

Brugsch  in  his  "  Reise  nach  Persien  "  gives  an  instance 
of  such  revenge  which  was  told  him  by  an  eye  witness. 

A  Persian  of  a  small  village  near  Teheran  killed  a  man 
belonging  to  the  same  village.  Fearing  punishment,  the 
murderer  managed  to  escape,  and  under  an  assumed  name 


lived  in  various  parts  of  Persia.  Finally  he  came  to 
Shiraz,  where  he  got  employment  in  the  service  of  the 
governor,  Prince  Tohmansn  Mirza.  Thirty  years  had 
passed  from  the  time  of  the  murder  and  he  considered 
himself  as  quite  safe.  Once  he  was  sent  by  the  prince 
with  a  drove  of  horses  to  Bendar  Bushire.  On  the  way 
he  camped  one  night  in  the  small  hamlet  of  Kesht.  Fear- 
ing for  the  safety  of  the  horses  confided  to  him,  he  took 
advantage  of  the  presence  of  a  company  of  two  "  tufang- 
chis"  (armed  guards)  who  happened  to  be  also  camping 
there  and  asked  them  to  help  him  watch  the  horses.  To 
keep  himself  awake,  one  of  the  guards  sang  as  he  sat  by 
the  campfire,  and  the  servant  of  the  prince,  recognising 
the  song  as  one  of  those  of  his  far-off  native  village,  had 
the  imprudence  to  ask  the  singer  if  he  was  not  from  such 
a  village,  naming  his  birthplace.  On  receiving  an  affirm- 
ative reply,  questions  followed.  One  of  the  other  men, 
hearing  the  conversation,  asked  how  long  the  prince's 
man  had  been  away  from  home.  "  For  many  years,  fully 
thirty,"  he  replied.  The  questioner  happened  to  be  a 
son  of  the  man  murdered  by  the  prince's  servant!  Other 
carefully  put  questions  brought  replies  that  confirmed 
his  suspicions,  and  though  the  name  given  was  different, 
he  was  convinced  that  his  father's  murderer  was  before 
him.  Waiting  until  the  unsuspicious  murderer  was 
asleep,  the  young  man  softly  approached  and  placing 
his  rifle  almost  against  the  sleeper's  head  fired,  in  this 
way  avenging  his  father's  death  after  thirty  years. 

Another  blood  feud  came  under  my  own  observation. 
In  the  eighties  I  happened  to  be  spending  some  time  in  a 
very  isolated  part  of  Persia,  in  a  town  inhabited  exclu- 
sively by  Moslems  and  where  I  was  the  only  European. 
Among  my  new  acquaintances  was  a  khan,  one  of  the 
largest  local  landowners,  a  young  man  of  about  twenty- 
five  and  a  great  lover  of  sport,  with  whom  I  often  went 
shooting.  One  evening  I  was  invited  to  dine  with  this 


398         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

young  man,  who  promised  me  that  there  should  be  Persian 
music  and  dancers.  After  dinner,  about  nine  o'clock  the 
guests  were  seated  in  the  large  "  telar,"  drawing  room, 
brightly  lighted  by  a  row  of  candles  and  lamps  standing 
on  the  floor.  In  one  corner  the  musicians  sat  on  the  floor, 
and  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  room,  facing  the  windows, 
were  the  guests.  Most  were  seated  on  cushions  on  the 
floor,  but  a  chair  was  placed  for  me  as  a  European  and 
my  host  occupied  another,  while  a  small  table  stood  in 
front  of  us.  The  evening  passed  as  all  Persian  evenings 
do — music,  the  kalian,  tea  and  sherbets.  The  bubble  of 
the  pipes  was  drowned  by  the  sound  of  the  musicians  and 
the  clashing  of  the  castanets  of  the  dancing  boys,  that  al- 
ways had  a  depressing  influence  on  me.  From  the  great 
open  window  occupying  the  entire  front  of  the  room  the 
soft  summer  air  came  in,  heavy  with  the  fragrance  of  the 
roses  that  filled  the  garden.  Looking  out  from  the 
lighted  room,  the  garden  seemed  dark  and  mysterious. 
The  khan  and  I  were  conversing  in  low  tones,  laying  out 
plans  for  a  bear  hunt  in  the  mountains  the  following  day. 
The  soloist  was  singing  a  popular  song  recounting  the 
death  of  Nassir-ed-Deen  Shah's  mother  during  his 
Majesty's  absence  in  Europe.  Suddenly  the  music  was 
brought  to  a  stop  by  the  sound  of  a  shot  that  seemed 
almost  to  have  been  fired  in  the  room.  In  the  startled 
silence  that  followed,  I  remembered  noticing  how  my 
companion,  the  khan,  dropped  the  cigarette  that  he 
was  holding  to  his  lips,  and  then  to  my  horror  I  saw  him 
slowly  settle,  and  slip  down  out  of  his  chair,  while  a 
crimson  stream  trickled  from  a  small  hole  in  his  temple! 
And  so  our  pleasant  evening  came  to  a  tragic  end. 

It  was  afterwards  proved  that  the  death  of  the  khan 
was  brought  about  by  a  blood  feud  that  had  existed  in  his 
family  for  three  generations,  and  that  his  was  the  eighth 
death  it  had  involved.  The  murderer  had  evidently  been 
able  to  creep  up  quite  unnoticed  in  the  darkness,  and  take 
his  station  among  the  rose  bushes  in  the  garden,  from 


LAW  PROCEEDINGS   IN   PERSIA       399 

which  place  he  had  a  good  view  of  the  brightly-lighted 
room  and  of  my  hospitable  host  sitting  by  me,  unconscious 
of  the  fate  awaiting  him. 

In  1897  during  an  epidemic  of  the  plague  in  India  a 
strict  quarantine  was  established  by  the  Russians  on  the 
Perso-Afghan  frontier.  Several  Afghans  insisting  on 
crossing  the  frontier  were  fired  at,  three  of  whom  were 
killed.  Two  years  passed,  and  one  day  a  Russian  official 
in  Askhabad,  going  to  his  office  in  uniform,  stepped  into 
a  shop  to  buy  cigarettes.  As  he  stood  waiting  for  change 
an  Afghan,  who  had  been  following  him  unnoticed, 
slipped  up  and  plunged  a  dagger  between  the  Russian's 
shoulders.  The  Afghan  was  arrested  and  stated  that  he 
was  the  brother  of  one  of  those  who  had  been  shot  by  the 
Russian  military  guard  on  the  frontier.  He  had  come  on 
foot  from  the  southern  part  of  Afghanistan  all  the  way 
to  Askhabad  with  the  intention  of  having  the  life  of  a  Rus- 
sian officer  in  revenge  for  his  brother's  death.  Seeing 
the  civilian,  whose  uniform  he  mistook  for  that  of  a  mili- 
tary officer,  the  Afghan  chose  this  wholly  innocent  oer- 
son  as  his  victim. 

These  instances  give  some  idea  of  the  deep  root  that 
the  system  of  blood  feuds  and  price  of  blood  has  in 
Persia,  both  among  the  town  people  and  among  the  no- 
mads, though  more  particularly  so  among  the  latter. 
It  is  very  'often  that  relatives  refuse  blood  payment  and 
insist  on  the  death  of  the  murderer.  This  is  invariably 
the  case  with  women,  especially  if  the  woman  has  lost 
her  son.  "  I  shall  not  drink  the  blood  of  the  light  of  my 
eyes,  I  demand  the  blood  of  his  murderer,"  they  say. 
This  is  interpreted  literally.  I  can  testify  to  cases  where 
mothers  have  gone  cup  in  hand  to  the  execution  of  their 
son's  murderer,  and  holding  the  cup  to  the  stream  that 
flowed  from  the  cut  throat,  drank  the  warm  blood.  Such 
cases  are  found  not  only  among  the  masses,  but  even  in 
the  higher  circles. 

When  Agha  Mohammed  Shah  was  killed  in  1798,  his 


400         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

murderer  was  given  over  to  the  princes,  whose  small 
children,  hardly  able  to  hold  a  dagger,  hacked  and  cut 
the  poor  wretch  until  their  elders  completed  what  they 
were  not  able  to  do.  In  the  same  way  the  murderer  of 
Nadir  Shah  was,  in  1747,  given  to  his  wives  in  the  harem 
to  be  done  to  death  by  them. 

In  demanding  damages  for  physical  injuries,  the  law 
of  retaliation  is  an  exceedingly  difficult  one  to  apply  lit- 
erally. Only  one  such  case  has  come  under  my  personal 
knowledge.  During  a  quarrel  a  Persian  slashed  off  a 
small  bit  of  his  opponent's  ear.  The  younger  brother 
of  the  latter,  while  wishing  to  avenge  his  brother  liter- 
ally, miscalculated  his  blow,  and  instead  of  taking  off  an 
equal  amount  of  ear,  removed  the  entire  member! 
Thereupon  the  first  offender  demanded  the  rest  of  the 
ear  of  his  victim.  This  the  second  man  naturally  refused 
to  consent  to,  and  referred  the  first  man  to  his  younger 
brother,  who  had  made  the  unlucky  operation.  The  dis- 
cussion that  followed  turned  to  blows,  and  finally  the 
younger  brother  was  killed.  The  elder  brother  then  fell 
upon  his  former  opponent,  now  the  murderer  of  his 
brother,  killing  him  on  the  spot.  The  result  of  all  this 
bloodshed  was  that  the  relatives  of  the  second  murdered 
man  simply  paid  the  price  of  the  half  ear  originally  lost 
by  the  elder  brother! 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  of  interest  to  draw  attention 
to  the  points  of  greatest  difference  between  the  Persian 
laws  and  laws  common  to  European  countries.  In  the 
first  place,  the  possession  of  property  does  not  give  the 
possessor  the  right  of  absolute  ownership.  On  this 
ground  a  person  considering  himself  theoretically  the 
owner  of  property  actually  held  by  another,  has  the  right 
of  taking  it  by  force.  Second,  oaths  are  administered 
both  in  civil  and  criminal  cases,  first  to  the  plaintiff,  or 
the  injured  person,  and  then  to  the  defendant,  or  accused. 
In  criminal  cases,  under  certain  circumstances,  more 


LAW  PROCEEDINGS   IN   PERSIA      401 

than  one  oath  is  administered.  For  example,  when  sev- 
eral persons  are  under  suspicion  for  murder  they  are 
obliged  to  take  the  oath  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  times, 
according  to  the  category  of  their  suspected  crime.  In 
this  case  the  number  of  oaths  is  divided  equally  among 
them.  If  there  are  five  persons,  each  takes  the  oath  five 
times.  If  there  are  three,  two  will  have  it  administered 
eight  times  and  the  other  nine  times.  Such  oaths  are  ad- 
ministered to  the  inmates  of  a  house  where  a  murdered 
man  may  be  found.  Third,  voluntary  confession  of  a 
crime  does  not  act  as  extenuating  circumstance,  and  the 
oath  is  administered  just  the  same.  Fourth,  the  accus- 
ers are  never  examined  under  oath,  as  information  ob- 
tained in  this  way  is  considered  a  sin. 

The  testimony  of  witnesses  who  are  unbelievers  is  ac- 
cepted, according  to  most  authorities,  only  when  their  tes- 
timony is  in  favour  of  a  Moslem.  The  testimony  of  wo- 
men is  accepted  only  in  cases  that  do  not  involve  death 
sentence,  and  even  then,  only  when  there  are  men  also  as 
witnesses  of  the  fact.  The  testimony  of  women  alone  is 
void.  Fifth,  the  conclusion  given  by  a  Mudjtaheid  is 
considered  as  final.  The  civil  powers  may  sometimes 
manage  to  evade  its  fulfilment,  but  they  never  venture  to 
dispute  its  correctness. 

Sixth,  post-mortem  examinations  in  the  interest  of 
legal  justice  are  forbidden  by  the  Shariat.  This  is  nat- 
urally the  cause  of  many  cases  of  poisoning  going  unpun- 
ished. By  the  orders  of  our  Transcaspian  authorities  an 
examination  was  made  of  the  body  of  a  Mohammedan 
herdsman  who  was  murdered  on  the  frontier.  This  be- 
ing known  in  Meshed,  the  chief  city  of  the  adjoining 
Persian  province  of  Khorasan  raised  a  great  tumult 
among  the  lower  classes,  which  threatened  to  end  in  a 
massacre  of  the  small  colony  of  Christians  in  that  place. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
THE  PERSIAN  AT  HOME 

Manner  of  Building  his  House — Enderoun  and  Beroun — Cellars — 
Water-Reservoris — Kursie — Summer-Resorts — Absence  of  Fashions 
— Daily  Occupations — Presents — Food,  Lawful  and  Unlawful — 
Wine  Forbidden — Persian  Table — Sweets — Gez — Wine-Making 
— Hashish  and  Opium  Serious  Menaces  to  Persia — Edible  Varieties 
of  Earth — Amusements — Tamashas — Dinners — Sport — Falconry  — 
Training  of  Falcons — Special  Forms  of  Sport — Races — Jugglers  and 
Gymnastics. 

IN  building  his  house  the  Persian  is  guided  by  custom 
and  religion.  His  first  thought  is  for  privacy,  and  he 
therefore  surrounds  his  dwelling  with  a  high  wall.  The 
need  of  running  water  for  the  ablutions  prescribed  by 
his  religion  leads  to  his  turning  the  common  water  sup- 
ply through  his  grounds.  Basins  or  small  tanks  are  made 
both  in  the  yard  and  in  the  house  for  the  water  supply. 

Further,  the  two  sexes  must  be  separated,  and  his 
women  so  situated  that  no  strange  masculine  eye  can  fall 
upon  them,  so  the  Persian  constructs  two  distinct  sets  of 
apartments,  the  enderoun  for  his  women  and  the  beroun 
for  the  men.  In  the  absence  of  timber  the  houses  are 
built  of  mud  in  the  poor  places,  or  with  sun-baked  or 
burnt  bricks  as  can  be  afforded  by  the  well-to-do.  The 
roofs,  being  flat,  form  sleeping  places  in  the  summer 
and  dry,  sunny  walks  in  the  winter. 

The  Persians  are  excellent  masons,  and  are  prized  as 
such  in  the  Caucasus,  where  many  go  yearly  for  work. 
In  building  a  house  no  scaffolding  is  put  up,  the  walls 
being  so  thick  that  the  mason  stands  on  them,  rising  with 

402 


403 

the  wall  he  builds.  As  he  lays  the  bricks  he  sings  a 
pleasing  but  monotonous  song  to  the  men  below,  who 
toss  up  bricks  or  mortar  as  he  calls  for  them  in  rhyme. 
The  earth  needed  for  the  building  is  taken  from  the  spot 
where  the  house  is  built,  and  from  the  ground  about  it. 
This  explains  the  reason  why  every  Persian  house  and 
garden  are  found  to  be  below  the  level  of  the  street.  The 
ground  is  laid  out  with  straight  paths  and  rows  of  poplar 
and  fruit  trees  that  follow  the  water  courses.  So  uni- 
form are  the  Persian  houses  that  the  description  of  one 
will  do  for  all.  There  are  no  windows  overlooking  the 
street,  only  more  or  less  elaborate  arched  gateways  with 
heavy  iron-studded  doors  and  iron  knockers.  On  enter- 
ing the  door  and  descending  a  few  steps  one  finds  the 
stables  and  the  servants'  quarters  to  the  right  and  left.  A 
corridor  leads  into  the  garden  with  its  large  basin  of 
water  and  flowers  that  Persians  love.  The  main  build- 
ing, most  probably  one-storied,  faces  the  entrance,  the 
large  reception  room  occupying  the  greater  part  of  the 
facade,  with  small  living  rooms  at  the  end  and  the  back. 

The  "telyar,"  or  large  reception  room,  is  the  princi- 
pal feature  of  the  men's  portion,  and  by  its  furnishings 
the  means  and  position  of  the  owner  may  be  judged.  The 
front  wall  is  almost  entirely  taken  up  by  a  large  window 
of  small,  many-coloured  glass  panes,  the  sashes  of  which 
are  raised,  and  before  these  open  windows  the  Persian 
passes  most  of  the  summer  days.  Of  furniture  in  our 
sense  of  the  word  there  is  none  in  a  typical  Persian 
house,  but  in  those  whose  owners  have  intercourse  with 
Europeans,  a  table  or  two  and  a  few  stiff  chairs  are 
found. 

The  floor,  being  of  brick  or  mortar,  is  first  covered  with 
reed  mats,  over  which  are  spread  the  carpets  that  form 
the  wealth  of  so  many  families.  Around  the  sides  of  the 
room,  in  alcoves  and  by  the  windows,  are  laid  mattresses 
covered  with  velvet  or  silk,  on  which  are  long,  round 


404         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

cushions  neatly  piled  up  against  the  wall,  thus  forming 
comfortable  lounging  places.  The  niches  that  line  every 
room  in  the  thick  walls  are  filled  with  bits  of  chinaware, 
glass  candlesticks  that  delight  the  Persian's  heart,  Per- 
sian and  Japanese  pottery,  clocks,  etc. 

In  summer,  in  the  richer  houses,  the  walls  and  ceilings 
of  the  reception  rooms  are  studded  with  bits  of  gloss  that 
are  so  cut  that  as  they  catch  the  rays  of  light  the  effect 
is  dazzling.  Often  a  little  greenhouse  or  orangery 
opens  from  this  room.  The  women's  quarters  are  a  repe- 
tition of  the  men's  room,  but  are  more  luxurious,  that  is 
to  say,  have  more  of  carpets  and  cushions  and  china. 

The  entrance  to  the  enderoun,  or  ladies'  quarters,  is 
generally  through  a  covered  corridor,  and  the  longer 
and  more  winding  it  is,  the  better.  A  heavy  canvas  cur- 
tain covers  the  entrance  leading  into  the  garden.  Here 
we  find  generally  that  the  garden  is  larger  and  that  there 
are  more  flowers  than  in  the  grounds  of  the  beroun. 

The  wealthy  class  have  a  bath  connected  with  the  en- 
deroun. The  roofs  of  the  houses  are  flat  everywhere, 
except  in  some  of  the  cities  along  the  Caspian  coast, 
where  timber  is  to  be  found. 

As  in  the  summer  time  the  roofs  are  the  sleeping 
rooms,  they  too  are  surrounded  by  walls  to  prevent  their 
being  overlooked  by  neighbours. 

Under  the  houses  are  cellars,  used  in  some  parts  of 
Persia  only  for  provisions,  but  in  others  as  a  cool  resort 
during  the  hot  hours  of  the  day.  In  such  cases  they  are 
fitted  up  very  luxuriantly,  with  a  fountain  playing  in  the 
middle,  and  raised  lounging  places  along  the  sides. 
Many  houses  also  have  a  reservoir  for  water,  called  the 
"  abambar." 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  anything  like  apart- 
ment houses  cannot  exist  in  Persia,  and  it  is  an  exception 
to  find  even  the  very  poor  living  two  or  more  families  in 
the  same  house. 


THE   PERSIAN   AT   HOME  40$ 

Persians  do  not  like  to  rent  their  houses  to  Christians, 
as  the  presence  of  the  latter  pollutes  them,  and  in  cities 
where  Europeans  go  for  the  first  time  it  is  often  almost 
impossible  to  get  a  house.  In  places  where  the  Persians 
are  accustomed  to  them  it  is  easier  to  obtain  houses,  but 
even  then  only  at  a  far  higher  rent  than  Mohammedans 
would  pay. 

Moreover,  their  fanaticism  extends  even  to  workmen. 
The  Nestorian  masons  of  Urumiah  often  find  difficulty, 
good  workmen  as  they  are,  in  finding  sufficient  employ- 
ment, as  Persians  do  not  wish  to  live  in  a  house  built  by 
Christians.  This  prejudice  is,  however,  dying  out. 

In  most  houses  small  narrow  fire-places  are  to  be 
found,  but  they  are  less  used  than  the  "  kursie."  This  is 
a  brazier  of  coals  placed  on  the  floor,  over  which  is  set  a 
stool  often  from  three  to  four  feet  square  and  a  couple 
of  feet  high.  Over  this  is  thrown  a  large  wadded  quilt, 
and  often  handsome  silks  or  shawls  are  spread  over  all. 
Mattresses  and  pillows  are  placed  around  it  on  the  floor, 
and  here  the  family  sits,  putting  the  feet  under  the  quilt 
for  warmth.  Kursies  are  to  be  found  in  more  or  less 
primitive  form  in  the  houses  of  both  rich  and  poor,  and 
as  the  doors  and  windows  are  badly  fitted  and  the  rooms 
are  cold  and  drafty,  many  sleep  at  night  around  the  cosy 
"  kursie." 

With  the  hot  season,  when  the  close,  filthy  streets  make 
town-life  intolerable,  those  who  can  do  so  move  to  sum- 
mer resorts.  Owing  to  hills  surrounding  so  many  of  the 
cities  of  Persia  one  is  generally  able  at  a  distance  of  a 
very  few  miles  to  reach  a  considerable  rise  in  altitude 
with  a  corresponding  change  in  the  temperature.  The 
shah  has  summer  houses  built  at  different  altitudes, 
thanks  to  which,  as  the  season  advances,  the  court  can 
move  to  higher  and  cooler  resorts. 

One  of  the  first  things  a  Persian  will  do  as  his  wealth 
increases,  is  to  buy  himself  a  summer  place.  This  gen- 


406         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

erally  takes  the  form  of  a  house  with  orchard  or  vineyard 
attached,  the  whole  being  surrounded  by  a  high  wall. 

Persian  gardeners  have  very  different  views  from  those 
of  Europe.  Lawns,  ornamental  lakes,  rustic  bridges  and 
winding  paths  are  unknown  to  them.  A  cord  is  drawn 
from  the  gateway  and  a  broad  alley  marked  out,  and 
others  cross  it,  cutting  the  entire  plot  into  squares.  Chi- 
nar,  or  plane  trees,  follow  these  alleys,  the  branches  be- 
ing trimmed  off  so  that  they  reach  a  great  height,  casting 
little  shade.  Between  them,  as  well  as  on  the  plots  laid 
out,  are  planted  low-growing  rose  bushes,  fruit  trees  or 
grape  vines.  Everywhere  streams  of  water  are  carried, 
without  which  nothing  can  be  made  to  grow.  The  foun- 
tains are  in  the  shape  of  round  or  oblong  basins  of  ce- 
ment sunk  in  the  ground  and  throwing  up  a  jet  of  water, 
or  simply  supplied  from  the  running  surface  streams. 
About  the  fountains  the  noble  "  nervin  "  of  the  Persians, 
or  "  kara-agach,"  as  it  is  called  in  Turkish,  a  species  of 
elm  (Ulmus  campestris],  is  planted.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  all  the  trees  cultivated  in  Persia. 
Weeping  willows,  ash  (Fraxinus  excelsior),  called  by  the 
Persians  "bird's  tongues,"  owing  to  the  shape  of  the 
leaves,  acacia  and  a  variety  of  the  silver  willow,  the 
Elasagnus  angustifolia,  are  all  easily  cultivated.  The  last 
mentioned  tree  blossoms  in  May,  giving  a  tiny  yellow 
bell-shaped  flower,  with  so  strong  and  yet  delicate  an 
odour  that  the  air  is  perfumed  for  a  long  distance  from 
the  tree.  The  fruit,  that  ripens  in  the  autumn,  resembles 
somewhat  a  date  in  form  and  stone  but  is  of  a  flowery, 
insipid  substance. 

Roses,  lilacs  and  jasmines  abound,  and  nearly  every 
house  in  the  town  has  also  at  least  a  few  fruit  trees, 
peaches,  apricots,  plums,  cherries,  nectarines  or  pears. 
Although  a  flower-loving  people,  the  Persians  have  no 
skill  in  cultivating  them,  and  only  the  most  simple,  old- 


THE   PERSIAN   AT   HOME  407 

fashioned  flowers,  as  four-o'clocks,  marigolds,  pinks,  as- 
ters and  phlox,  are  to  be  seen.  Finer  plants  are  culti- 
vated only  in  the  shah's  gardens  or  in  the  gardens  of  the 
Europeans.  Well-watered  gardens  grow  with  a  luxuri- 
ance and  rapidity  that  would  well  pay  the  scientific  gar- 
dener. Trees  attain  in  from  fifteen  to  twenty  years  the 
size  that  in  Russia  could  not  be  reached  in  less  than 
from  thirty  to  forty  years. 

The  clothing  of  the  Persians  is  ordered  by  custom  and 
religion,  and  the  word  fashion  does  not  exist  in  the  Per- 
sian vocabulary.  The  dress  of  the  people  has  changed 
little  during  the  years.  The  hat  that  marks  the  Persian 
subject,  of  whatever  religion  he  may  be,  is  the  small 
black  lamb's-wool  or  cloth  head-dress  called  "  kulyag." 
In  form  it  is  something  like  a  fez,  but  without  the  tassel. 
As  it  has  no  rim,  the  Persians  fasten  around  it  a  visor,  to 
shade  the  eyes  in  travelling.  This  hat  never  leaves  the 
Persian's  head  by  day,  and  sometimes,  even,  it  is  kept  on 
at  night,  or  if  then  removed,  a  small  skull  cap  is  worn. 
Thirty  or  forty  years  ago  in  many  parts  of  Persia  this  hat 
was  high  and  peaked  in  shape,  but  now  the  low  ones  are 
exclusively  used,  though  Naser-ed-deen  Shah  found  a 
good  deal  of  difficulty  in  introducing  them  among  his 
conservative  subjects. 

Skull  caps  of  felt  are  mostly  worn  by  the  working 
classes,  and  the  clergy  wear  white  turbans,  the  sayids,  or 
descendants  of  the  Prophet,  green  turbans,  and  Kurds 
wind  many-coloured  handkerchiefs  around  their  felt 
caps. 

As  it  is  forbidden  to  pray  when  wearing  silk  cloth  or 
gold  ornaments,  the  men's  garments  are  seldom  of  that 
material,  but  rather  of  cotton  or  cloth,  while  their  rings 
are  set  in  silver  and  gold  watches  are  seldom  carried. 

The  beard  is  almost  never  shaved,  and  a  big  beard  is 
considered  as  the  sign  of  intelligence.  In  praising  a 


4o8         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

man  they  will  say,  "  He  has  a  big  beard,"  and  will  add, 
"  He  is  clever,  wise,"  or,  as  he  expresses  it,  "  His  words  are 
cooked." 

Oaths  are  taken  on  the  beard,  and  instead  of  saying  that 
one  was  laughed  at,  thtey  will  say,  "  I  laughed  at  his 
beard."  According  to  the  Shariat,  shaving  of  the  beard 
is  looked  upon  as  a  humiliating  punishment.  The  Ori- 
ental habit  of  removing  the  shoes  on  entering  a  room  is 
observed,  and  in  making  calls  the  Europeans  always 
wear  overshoes  which  they  take  off.  This  custom  has  its 
practical  reason  for  existing,  as  in  the  absence  of  other 
furniture  the  carpets  are  used  to  sit  on,  and  dusty  and 
muddy  shoes  would  render  them  unfit  for  seats. 

The  Persians  are  very  fond  of  arms  of  all  kinds,  and 
daggers  are  commonly  worn.  In  a  moment  of  anger 
these  are  sometimes  used,  but  generally  they  serve  as  or- 
nament. 

The  routine  of  the  day  is  also  guided  by  religious  cus- 
toms. The  necessity  of  performing  his  ablutions  and  re- 
peating prayers  before  sunrise  causes  the  Persian  to  be  an 
early  riser.  Having  said  his  prayer,  or  "  namaz,"  he 
drinks  his  tea  or  coffee,  smokes  a  pipe  and  begins  his  day 
— the  merchant  goes  to  the  bazaar,  the  workman  to  his 
field  and  the  official  to  his  place  of  service.  If  he  be  a 
"mirza,"  or  scribe,  he  goes  to  the  house  of  his  patron 
before  sunrise,  sure  of  finding  that  the  latter  has  already 
left  the  enderoun  and  is  seated  in  the  beroun.  As  there 
are  no  special  administrative  offices,  each  government 
official  carries  on  his  work  in  his  own  house,  seated  on  his 
cushion  with  his  secretaries  seated  on  the  floor  about  him. 
The  archives,  if  very  numerous,  may  be  kept  in  boxes  or 
a  valise,  and  the  documents  necessary  for  reference  are 
kept  conveniently  slipped  under  the  mattresses,  whence 
they  are  easily  drawn  out  when  needed.  The  en- 
tire work  is  done  in  this  simple  reception  room — tele- 
grams written,  important  documents  drawn  up,  instruc- 


THE   PERSIAN   AT   HOME  409 

tions  given,  cases  tried,  judged,  and  even  sentences  car- 
ried into  effect  on  the  spot,  it  not  being  unusual  to  have 
bastinado  or  other  punishment  inflicted  under  the  open 
window  by  which  the  official  is  seated.  Here,  too,  in  an 
equally  open  way,  are  given  and  taken  the  "peshkesh," 
or  presents,  without  which  no  important  business  can  be 
completed,  and  the  amount  of  which  must  govern  the 
decisions  made. 

The  custom  of  giving  peshkesh  has  obtained  for  itself 
the  right  of  citizenship  in  Persia.  The  peshkesh  may 
take  any  form,  from  a  flower  or  cucumber  to  horses  and 
gold  or  jewels.  It  may  be  given  with  the  innocent,  even 
if  hardly  laudable,  hope  of  receiving  an  "anam"  or 
gift  of  equal  or  greater  value  in  return,  as  a  gardener 
presenting  to  his  master  the  first  fruits  of  his  garden,  or 
it  may  be  given  with  the  less  innocent  and  still  less  laud- 
able intention  of  influencing  the  course  of  justice. 

The  shameless  way  in  which  these  peshkesh  are  given 
and  accepted  is  familiar  to  all  living  in  Persia.  I  will 
give  one  instance,  the  parties  to  which  transaction  we 
knew  well.  A  new  governor  arriving  in  a  certain  prov- 
ince, the  chiefs  of  each  department  hasten  to  bring  him 
presents,  hoping  thereby  to  conciliate  the  great  man  and 
to  keep  their  situations.  One  officer,  the  chief  of  the  ar- 
tillery, had  reason  to  fear  that  his  chances  were  rather 
low,  and  he  therefore  prepared  as  fine  a  present  as  he 
could  afford.  When  he  went  to  pay  his  respects  to  his 
new  chief  a  pair  of  very  handsome  Russian  carriage 
horses  were  led  under  the  window  where  the  governor 
was  seated.  The  governor  glanced  at  them  and  then, 
turning  to  the  anxious  officer,  said  he  was  much  obliged 
for  the  little  gift,  but  that  he  found  the  horses  rather 
thin  and  would  advise  the  owner  to  take  them  home  and 
feed  them  up.  The  unlucky  general  bowed  low  and 
took  his  leave,  followed  by  his  men  leading  the  horses. 
At  considerable  inconvenience  he  raised  money  to  buy 


4io        LIFE  IN  THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

a  second  pair,  riding  horses  this  time.  A  few  days  later 
he  presented  himself  with  all  four  horses.  The  gov- 
ernor, seated  with  his  water  pipe  on  his  cushions  by  the 
window,  gravely  looked  the  horses  over  and  pronounced 
them  to  be  in  better  condition,  but  added  "  that  there  was 
yet  room  for  improvement." 

Our  friend  left,  and  this  time  was  obliged  to  sell  his 
summer  place  to  get  money,  and  the  comedy  was  repeated 
until  eight  valuable  horses  were  pronounced  sufficiently 
"  well  fed  "  to  be  accepted. 

But  to  return  to  our  official's  office.  During  business 
hours  he  finds  time  to  receive  callers  and  to  drink  with 
them  glasses  of  tea  and  small  cups  of  coffee.  About 
eleven  or  twelve  o'clock  the  host,  feeling  hunger,  orders 
lunch.  There  is  no  special  dining  room  nor  set  hours  for 
meals.  He  eats  when  and  wherever  he  feels  like  it. 
The  food  is  brought  in  upon  trays,  and  a  silk  or  cotton 
cloth  being  spread  on  the  carpet  in  front  of  the  host,  the 
tray  is  placed  upon  it.  All  that  remains  is  for  him  to 
draw  closer,  saying,  "  Bismillahi  rahmanie  rahim,"  and 
invite  his  callers  to  do  the  same.  Thin  sheets  of  bread 
take  the  place  of  forks,  and  fingers  and  spoons  dipped  in 
the  common  dish  furnish  the  rest  of  the  table  service. 

The  Persian  cooking  is  delicious  and  varied.  Rice 
cooked  in  many  ways,  mutton,  chickens  and  vegetables 
form  the  base  of  the  different  dishes.  The  more  im- 
portant of  the  aides  of  the  officials  will  be  invited  to  par- 
take with  him ;  those  of  inferior  rank  will  have  a  tray  in 
the  lower  corner  of  the  room  or  in  an  adjoining  cham- 
ber. Many  governors  or  officials  of  high  rank  in  this 
way  feed  as  many  as  fifty  retainers  outside  of  their  im- 
mediate family. 

After  eating,  a  nap  of  an  hour  or  two  is  taken,  often 
here  in  the  same  place  after  the  tray  has  been  removed. 
The  bedroom  furniture  is  as  uncomplicated  as  is  that  of 


THE   PERSIAN   AT   HOME  411 

the  dining  room :  a  mattress,  "  dushek,"  a  long  round 
pillow  filled  with  cotton  or  wool,  and  a  wadded  quilt. 
The  whole,  when  not  in  use,  is  rolled  up  and  tied  in  a 
large  square  of  cotton  or  wool  stuff,  according  to  the 
means,  and  put  up  against  the  side  of  the  room  to  serve 
as  a  cushion  to  lean  against  by  day. 

After  his  nap  the  Persian  again  begins  his  work2  stop- 
ping to  perform  his  devotions  at  the  prescribed  hour, 
this  also  being  done  where  he  has  been  carrying  on  all  the 
other  details  of  the  day's  work. 

Sometimes  the  afternoon  is  spent  in  making  calls, 
which  he  does  accompanied  by  a  number  of  servants,  the 
size  of  the  retinue  depending  upon  his  rank.  No  formal 
calls  are  made  without  first  sending  to  ascertain  if  the 
hour  intended  be  convenient  to  the  one  on  whom  the  call 
is  made.  If  it  is  not  convenient,  another  day  and  hour  is 
fixed,  and  our  custom  of  calling  and  leaving  cards  appears 
to  the  Persian  as  rude  and  ridiculous. 

The  love  of  outward  pomp  is  never  more  shown  than 
in  the  number  and  character  of  the  escort  that  all  Per- 
sians of  any  rank  will  aspire  to.  We  had  an  amusing 
illustration  of  this  national  characteristic  when  we  lived 
in  Meshed.  Our  coachman,  who  in  his  own  estimation 
was  quite  an  important  personage,  sighed  for  the  pomp 
that  his  means  did  not  permit.  Occasionally,  however, 
he  would  allow  himself  a  great  treat.  Collecting  twenty 
or  more  idle  fellows  he  would  hire  them  for  a  few  cents 
to  accompany  him  as  escorts  on  a  walk.  Putting  on  his 
best  clothes,  he  would  set  out  from  our  stables,  pacing 
along  with  the  slow  measured  step  of  the  great,  preceded 
and  followed  by  his  servants  of  the  hour.  As  he  walked 
down  the  great  avenue  of  Meshed  small  shopkeepers 
and  the  many  loungers  would  rise  on  seeing  so  important 
a  cortege  pass  and  would  ask  each  other  in  audible  whis- 
pers who  the  great  man  was.  The  satisfaction  he  re- 


412         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

ceived  from  this  innocent  childish  exhibition  more  than 
repaid  him  for  the  money  spent,  and  he  would  return  to 
his  horses  with  a  heart  at  peace  and'  full  of  satisfied 
vanity. 

At  sundown  the  streets  begin  to  empty,  as  there  is  very 
little  movement  after  dark.  Those  who  do  go  out  carry 
lanterns,  as  few  cities  in  Persia  are  lighted.  The  lantern 
shows  by  its  size  the  rank  of  the  Persian  passing.  The 
simple  house  owner  will  go  out  with  a  small  paper  lan- 
tern of  a  few  inches  in  diameter,  whereas  the  servants 
of  the  governor  general  precede  him  carrying  lanterns 
of  the  same  pattern,  but  of  two  feet  in  diameter. 

The  Persians  are  very  temperate  in  their  habits  and 
particular  that  the  choice  of  food  be  in  accordance  with 
the  tenets  of  their  religion.  The  Koran  itself  says  very 
little  as  to  what  is  pure,  lawful,  "  halal,"  or  impure,  for- 
bidden, "haram."  It  only  forbids  pork  in  every  form, 
the  flesh  of  animals  that  have  died  a  natural  death,  and 
the  use  of  wine.  These  instructions  are  found  in  the  6th 
Sura  and  i46th  verse: 

"  Say,  I  find  not  in  that  which  hath  been  revealed  unto 
me,  anything  forbidden  unto  the  eater,  that  he  eat  it  not, 
except  it  be  that  which  dieth  of  itself,  or  blood  poured 
forth,  or  swine's  flesh,  for  this  is  an  abomination." 

A  similar  command  is  found  in  Sura  16,  verse  116: 

"  Eat  of  what  God  has  given  you  for  food,  that  which 
is  lawful  and  good;  and  be  thankful  for  the  favours  of 
God  if  ye  serve  him.  He  hath  forbidden  you  that  which 
dieth  of  itself,  and  blood,  and  swine's  flesh,  and  that 
which  hath  been  slain  in  the  name  of  any  besides  God. 
But  unto  him  who  shall  be  compelled  by  necessity  to 
eat  of  these  things,  not  lusting,  nor  wilfully  transgressing, 
God  will  surely  be  gracious  and  merciful." 

In  regard  to  wine,  we  find  in  the  21 6th  verse  of  the 
2d  Sura  the  following  words :  "  They  will  ask  thee  con- 


THE   PERSIAN   AT   HOME  413 

cerning  wine  and  lots.1  Answer,  in  both  there  is  great 
sin,  and  also  some  things  of  use  unto  men;  but  their  sin- 
fulness  is  greater  than  their  use." 

These  are  all  the  commands  to  be  found  in  the  Koran, 
but  on  this  basis  the  Shariat  has  worked  out  a  long 
formula  of  what  is  forbidden  and  the  manner  of  slaugh- 
tering animals  to  make  the  flesh  admissible  for  food. 
According  to  the  Shariat,  the  absolutely  forbidden  ani- 
mals are  reptiles,  crustaceans,  fish  without  scales,  as  eels, 
etc.,  beasts  of  prey,  rodents,  hares,  etc.,  birds  of  prey  and 
those  not  possessing  crops.  On  the  latter  ground,  the 
Persians  refrain  from  eating  snipe  of  all  varieties.  The 
eggs  of  birds  and  fish,  caviar,  also  the  milk  of  animals 
whose  flesh  is  forbidden,  are  not  eaten. 

The  doctrines  guiding  the  choice  of  food  is,  however, 
open  to  dispute,  many  theologians  permitting  the  flesh 
of  an  animal  that  others  forbid.  The  flesh  of  a  lawful 
animal  may  become  unlawful,  "  haram,"  if  it  is  not 
slaughtered  according  to  the  rites  laid  down.  Aside 
from  alcohol  and  wine,  all  fermented  drinks  are  strictly 
forbidden. 

The  Shariat  enjoins  ablutions  which  should  be  per- 
formed before  and  after  eating,  and  during  the  washing 
God's  name  should  be  pronounced. 

The  Persians  have  a  limited  choice  of  meats,  but  these 
they  prepare  in  so  many  different  ways  that  their  table 
is  one  of  the  most  varied  and  delicious.  Rice,  vegetables, 
fruit  and  every  green  that  is  not  poisonous  enter  into  their 
menu.  In  some  parts  of  Persia,  as  in  Mazandaran,  rice 
almost  entirely  replaces  bread,  and  the  poorer  sort  is  used 
for  horses'  food.  Beef  is  very  little  eaten  and  is  of  poor 
quality.  The  pasture  lands  being  more  suitable  for 
sheep,  cattle  are  kept  only  as  needed  for  beasts  of  burden, 
ploughing  and  for  milk.  They  are  therefore  butchered 

J0r.  as  other  translators  have  it,  gambling. 


4H        LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM   EAST 

only  when  past  being  of  use  in  such  ways,  and  naturally 
they  are  then  poor  eating.  Mutton  is  therefore  the  staple 
article  of  meat  diet  and  is  used  when  freshly  killed. 
Owing  to  the  climate  and  the  absence  of  convenience  for 
i  preserving  meat  the  Persians  never  smoke  nor  salt  it. 
The  only  method  of  preparing  meat  for  storing  is  cook- 
ing it  and  then  packing  away  in  earthen  jars  with  alter- 
nate layers  of  meat  and  melted  mutton  fat. 

Sweet  drinks  are  very  much  used — simple  sugar  and 
water  or  various  fruit  syrups  or  sherbets. 

It  is  impossible  to  touch  even  as  lightly  as  I  am  doing 
upon  Persian  life  without  mentioning  the  important  part 
that  sweets  of  various  kinds  fulfil.  No  family,  no  social 
event  is  complete  without  th'em.  A  friend  arrives,  you 
send  him  a  tray  of  "  shereenie,"  sweets.  A  birth,  wed- 
ding and  even  funeral  calls  for  them. 

In  speaking  of  sweets  I  must  mention  one  variety  pe- 
culiar to  this  country,  called  "  gez,"  or  "  gez-angebin," 
which  is  made  of  "  manna,"  a  saccharine  exudation  of 
certain  bushes.  Even  among  the  Persians  there  is  a 
common  legend  that  the  manna  falls  from  heaven,  which 
is  easily  believed  by  z  people  who  love  all  that  is  super- 
natural, and  also  as  proof  of  their  conviction  that  "  Iran 
khub  meleket  est,"  Persia  is  a  good  country,  where  even 
food  falls  from  heaven.  The  bushes  known  in  Persia 
as  giving  manna  are  of  seven  varieties,  some  of  which  are 
used  only  for  medicinal  purposes.  Of  these  is  one  grow- 
ing about  Tabriz,  Khorasan,  Kum  and  Bendar  Bushire, 
the  Hedysarum  alhagi.  The  manna  used  for  gez  is  ob- 
tained from  the  Tamarisk ( Tamarix  mannifera) ,  probably 
the  manna  of  the  children  of  Israel.  The  tamarisk  is 
found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  Persia,  but  the  manna-bearing 
kind  is  only  met  with  in  the  small  district  of  Hunsar, 
lying  about  one  hundred  miles  northwest  of  Ispahan. 
The  reason  of  the  manna  being  found  only  in  this  place 


THE   PERSIAN   AT   HOME  415 

is  supposed  to  be  due  to  the  presence  of  an  insect,  Coccus 
manniferus,  whose  sting  sets  the  sap  flowing.  The  gez 
made  from  this  manna  is  considered  to  be  one  of  the 
greatest  dainties.  It  is  made  by  pounding  the  grains  of 
manna  to  a  flour,  from  which  a  dough  is  made,  and  often 
pistachios  or  other  nuts  are  added,  with  cardamom  as  a 
flavour.  The  dough  is  worked  into  little  flat  cakes, 
sprinkled  with  flour  and  packed  in  small  boxes  for  sale. 

The  Persians  are  extremely  simple  and  abstemious  in 
the  matter  of  food.  One  often  wonders  at  the  strength  of 
the  men,  who  will  do  heavy  work  or  go  long  distances  on  a 
little  bread  with  a  small  bit  of  cheese,  a  bunch  of  grapes, 
or  dry  fruit.  Although  wine  is  forbidden,  the  Persian 
often  finds  the  temptation  to  indulge  in  it  greater  than  his 
religious  scruples.  He  does  not  drink  wine  as  we  do,  for 
the  pleasure  of  the  flavour,  but  rather  for  the  pleasure 
of  intoxication,  and  the  sooner  that  state  is  reached,  the 
better  is  considered  the  quality  of  the  wine.  It  is,  how- 
ever, considered  a  disgrace  to  be  seen  in  a  state  of  in- 
toxication, and  the  shameful  scenes  common  in  many 
parts  of  Europe  and  especially  in  Russia  rarely  offend 
the  eye  in  Persia. 

Respect  for  his  host  will  prevent  a  well-bred  man  from 
drinking  too  much  in  company,  and  drinking  orgies  are 
generally  carried  on  in  private  or  in  the  company  of 
boon  companions  who  do  not  leave  the  house  until  the 
effects  have  passed  off.  It  is  therefore  as  much  public 
opinion  as  religious  belief  that  keeps  Persians  from 
drinking,  or  at  least  from  drinking  too  much,  unless  occa- 
sionally in  private.  The  wine  is  usually  made  by  Chris- 
tians, and  is  prepared  in  so  primitive  a  manner  that  it 
cannot  be  kept  for  export.  In  time,  with  the  magnificent 
vineyards,  the  wine  industry  will  probably  form  one  of 
the  chief  items  of  Persian  export. 

'But  worse  than  drunkenness  is  the  curse  of  opium.    In 


416         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

Khorasan  we  found  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  find  ser- 
vants free  from  this  vice,  the  physical  effects  of  which  are 
even  more  serious  than  that  of  alcoholism.  Two  forms 
of  the  drug  are  used,  hashish  and  opium,  although  the 
former  is  strictly  forbidden  by  the  Shariat.  In  spite  of 
this  and  the  bastinado,  which  is  frequently  administered 
to  hashish  smokers,  particularly  to  soldiers,  this  danger- 
ous custom  is  undoubtedly  on  the  increase,  more  especially 
among  the  lower  classes  and  villagers.  Hashish  is  pre- 
pared from  the  flower  tops  of  the  Indian  hemp  (Cannabls 
Indices),  that  grows  freely  in  almost  all  parts  of  central 
Asia.  Its  preparation  is  very  simple.  The  flowers  of  the 
Indian  hemp  are  pulled  while  in  full  bloom,  and  then 
rubbed  for  a  long  time  on  a  rough  carpet.  This  produces 
a  sticky  mass  of  pulp,  that  is  scraped  up  with  a  knife  and 
rolled  into  small  pills.  In  this  form  it  is  known  as  hash- 
ish, or  "  chers "  in  Persian. 

Chers  is  smoked  in  pipes,  generally  mixed  with  to- 
bacco. Hashish  smokers  can  readily  be  detected  by  their 
sallow  complexion,  uncertain  gait  and  wandering  eyes. 
Beginning  with  small  doses,  the  hashish  smoker  is  forced 
to  increase  the  quantity,  and  he  goes  slowly  but  surely  to 
a  miserable  end. 

Another  preparation  is  made  from  the  same  plant, 
called  "  rayhani  bend "  in  Persian.  This  is  made  by 
boiling  the  hemp  blossoms  in  butter  or  almond  oil.  The 
preparation  when  mixed  with  food  in  the  proper  propor- 
tion throws  the  eater  into  a  deep  sleep  for  from  twenty- 
four  to  seventy  hours.  Rayhani  bend  is  used  in  Persia 
for  criminal  purposes.  By  means  of  it  women  are  often 
abducted,  but  such  cases  seldom  get  out  of  the  harem 
walls,  except  in  the  form  of  vague  rumours.  Not  being 
sure  of  facts,  I  shall  therefore  not  dwell  upon  this  side  of 
the  subject,  but  will  give  one  instance  that  took  place  in 
the  seventies  of  the  last  century,  a  fact  well  authenticated 


THE   PERSIAN   AT   HOME  417 

and  reported  by  Dr.  Schlemmer  in  a  lecture  before  the 
"  Dar  ul  fenund  "  in  Teheran.1 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century  a  Persian  occupying 
an  important  position  was  suspected  of  treason  and  there- 
fore thrown  into  prison.  By  special  orders  he  was  strictly 
surrounded  by  a  picked  guard  under  the  command  of  a 
trusted  "  gulambashi "  in  the  employ  of  one  of  the  min- 
isters. As  a  man  of  high  position,  the  prisoner  was  per- 
mitted to  have  his  meals  brought  to  him  from  home. 
This  was  done  in  large  trays  and  in  quantities  sufficient 
not  only  for  himself,  but  for  the  entire  guard,  from  the 
gulambashi  down.  This  continued  for  some  time.  One 
day  as  usual  the  evening  meal  was  brought,  and  in  the 
morning  when  the  guard  was  changed  it  was  found  that 
they  were  all  in  a  deep  sleep.  The  gulambashi  was  car- 
ried to  his  house,  and  Dr.  Schlemmer  succeeded  in 
restoring  him  to  consciousness  only  after  seventeen  hours. 
The  prisoner  in  the  meantime  was  safely  in  "bast"  at 
Sha-Abdul-Azim,  some  five  miles  from  Teheran,  a  ref- 
uge from  which  the  civil  powers  could  not  remove  him. 
Here  he  remained  in  safety  until  his  case  was  tried,  and 
his  innocence  being  proved  he  was  set  at  liberty. 

Many  Persians  begin  from  a  certain  age  to  take 
"teriak,"  opium,  which  they  constantly  carry  on  their 
persons  in  the  form  of  pills.  It  is  safe  to  state  that 
half  of  the  Persians  from  the  age  of  thirty-five  to 
forty  take  this  narcotic  daily.  The  general  theory  is 
that  taking  teriak  in  this  form  refreshes  the  brain  and 
invigorates  the  organism  as  an  antidote  to  old  age.  The 
usual  dose  is  from  one  to  two  grains  a  day,  and  in  the 
moist  provinces  about  the  Caspian  Sea  from  three  to  four 
grains  is  the  quantity  often  taken.  Dr.  Pollock  knew  a 
dervish  who  took  seven  grains  of  opium  at  a  time,  a  suffi- 

1  Schlemmer,  "  Terminologie  medico-pharmaceutique  et  antrologique  Fran- 
£aise-Persane,  Teheran." 


4i&        LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

cient  quantity  to  poison  several  persons  not  accustomed 
to  the  drug.  According  to  this  physician,  opium  taken 
regularly  in  small  doses  does  not  have  any  injurious  con- 
sequences ;  on  the  contrary,  he  cites  cases  of  people  who 
lived  to  a  great  age  though  given  to  this  habit.  Opium 
is  often  administered  to  children,  with  terrible  results 
if  carried  to  extremes.  This  is  commonly  found  among 
the  poor  when  the  mothers  are  obliged  to  work.  We 
had  a  Persian  washerwoman  who  worked  all  day,  while 
her  baby,  slung  in  a  home-made  hammock  in  a  corner 
of  the  wash-house,  was  the  wonder  of  everyone,  for  it 
was  never  heard  to  cry.  We  found  on  inquiry  that  the 
poor  little  creature  had  a  rag  with  teriak  and  sugar  tied 
in  it,  and  this  was  stuck  in  its  mouth  to  suck  whenever  it 
awoke  and  became  restless. 

Of  course,  in  such  cases  the  dose  has  to  be  increased, 
and  if  the  child  survives,  it  is  a  pale,  miserable  creature. 
Persian  nurses  have  to  be  carefully  watched  or  they  will 
manage  to  give  their  charges  teriak  or  hashish. 

Opium  smoking  has  a  different  effect,  although  quite 
as  fatal  to  the  system  as  hashish  smoking.  It  is  generally 
smoked  pure  without  being  mixed  with  tobacco. 

It  may  be  of  interest  also  to  note  certain  kinds  of  earth 
that  are  eaten  as  delicacies  in  some  places,  and  in  famine 
years  if  not  as  food  at  least  as  a  means  of  calming  the 
pangs  of  hunger.  These  kinds  of  clay  are  called,  accord- 
ing to  the  variety,  "  gelie-ormenie,"  or  "  gelie-kum,"  as 
the  latter  is  found  near  the  city  of  Kum.  This  is  a  sticky 
clay  with  an  unpleasant  taste.  Another  variety  is  "  nad- 
zir,"  or  "bezoart  stone,"  used  by  the  native  doctors  as 
an  antidote  for  poison,  as  well  as  a  dainty  that  is  con- 
sidered beneficial  to  pregnant  women.  The  bezoart 
stones  are  of  two  kinds,  vegetable  and  animal,  and  have 
a  pleasant  pungent  taste. 

The  Persian's  life  is  not  rich  in  entertainments,  as  the 


THE   PERSIAN   AT   HOME  419 

only  forms  of  public  amusements  or  sights  are  fireworks 
and  races  organised  by  the  shah  or  nobles,  and  the  re- 
ligious processions  and  plays  in  the  month  of  Muharram. 
Therefore  any  object  or  incident,  however  insignificant 
it  may  be,  is  sufficient  to  excite  interest  and  to  draw  a 
crowd  to  see  the  "  tamasha,"  or  sight.  If  the  drum  and 
fife  are  heard  that  accompany  a  bridal  procession  or  a 
bride's  trousseau,  the  streets  and  roofs  are  immediately 
crowded  with  people  to  see  the  tamasha.  If  Europeans 
pass  through  the  village,  a  crowd  follows,  exchanging 
remarks  that  are  not  always  complimentary  to  the  stran- 
gers. 

The  lower  classes  find  great  pleasure  in  spending 
hours  in  the  cafes,  listening  to  professional  story-tellers 
or  singers. 

The  bath,  too,  forms  something  like  a  club.  Occasion- 
ally a  bear  or  monkey  is  led  through  the  village  to  the 
beating  of  tambourines,  or  a  lizard  fully  a  yard  long  that 
is  to  be  found  in  some  parts  of  Persia. 

Ram  and  cock  fighting  is  popular,  and  during  the 
Easter  week,  in  some  Nestorian  villages,  buffalo  fights 
are  arranged.  Two  crowds  gather,  bets  are  made  and 
the  entire  village  turns  out  for  the  sport.  This  is  the 
sum  total  of  popular  entertainments  in  Persia.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  each  one  according  to  his  means 
tries  to  supply  in  his  own  house  this  want.  This  gives 
rise  to  the  Persian's  love  of  dinners,  "  mehmani."  Among 
the  court  circles  and  higher  nobility  these  entertainments 
are  made  in  the  European  style,  the  dinner  being  served 
at  tables.  Among  the  middle  and  poor.classes  and  in  the 
provinces,  the  dinner  is  served  as  it  was  centuries  ago. 
The  menu  differs  only  in  quality  and  number  of  dishes, 
according  to  the  position  of  the  host.  The  ever-present 
pilaw,  for  instance,  in  the  richer  houses  is  made  of  a  fine 
sort  of  rice  that  is  carefully  picked  over  by  the  women 


420         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

in  the  harem,  grain  by  grain.  Fruit,  so  plentiful  and 
luxuriant  in  Persia,  is  eaten  by  all  classes,  forming  to- 
gether with  bread  the  staple  diet  of  the  poor.  In  typical 
Persian  houses  the  dinner  is  served  on  the  floor  without 
knives  or  forks,  fingers  and  thin  sheets  of  bread  taking 
their  place.  Slightly  rolling  up  their  right  sleeve  and 
leaning  forward,  the  Persian  skilfully  manipulates  the 
rice  between  his  fingers,  eating  it  neatly  and  cleverly.  The 
meal  is  always  eaten  in  silence,  and  at  the  close  water  is 
brought  to  wash  the  hands.  After  the  dinner  the  conver- 
sation becomes  general  and  the  current  topics  are  dis- 
cussed, first  and  foremost  in  interest  the  "  amount  eaten," 1 
or  about  to  be  eaten,  by  such  and  such  an  official.  When 
this  favourite  subject  is  exhausted,  they  begin  what  the 
Persians  love  to  call  "  philosophical  discussions."  These 
are  based  on  some  quite  improbable  theory,  and  it  is  some- 
times difficult  to  repress  a  smile  on  seeing  the  seriousness 
with  which  it  is  treated.  For  instance,  the  ball  will  be 
started  by  suggesting  what  might  be  if  the  Caspian  Sea 
should  turn  into  a  Sahara,  or  if  people  had  wings.  In 
the  debate  that  follows,  if  a  good  point  is  made,  the  ap- 
proval of  the  company  is  manifested  by  exclamations  of 
"Philosoph  est,  paderi  Eflatoon!"  (He  is  a  philosopher, 
the  father  of  Plato.)  Or  they  will  say,  "Plato  in  com- 
parison with  you  is  but  as  a  dog." 

Sometimes  the  conversation  is  of  magic  and  witch- 
craft; of  the  doings  and  sayings  of  the  prophets  Moham- 
med and  Ali.  During  this  time  the  merry  bubble  bubble 
of  the  water  pipes  is  the  invariable  accompaniment. 
Sometimes  musicians  and  dancing  boys  are  called  in,  and 
at  the  close  of  two  or  three  hours  the  guests  take  their 
leave,  followed  by  the  good  wishes  of  their  host  that 
11  their  shadow  may  never  grow  less,"  and  thanks  for  the 
"  trouble  they  drew "  in  favouring  him  with  their  com- 
pany. 

*That  is  the  Persian  expression  for  taking  bribes. 


THE  PERSIAN  AT   HOME  421 

The  Persians  are  exceedingly  hospitable,  and  no  one 
who  comes  to  the  house  is  allowed  to  leave  without  din- 
ner or  some  refreshment.  I  have  often  been  present 
when  a  dervish  has  entered  and  after  a  general  salutation 
has  taken  his  seat  at  the  tray  without  any  invitation. 

Persians  are  very  fond  of  sport,  that  is  indulged  in  by 
the  rich  for  amusements  and  by  the  poor  as  a  means  of 
existence.  It  is  doubtful  whether  in  any  other  country  of 
the  same  size  a  greater  variety  of  game  can  be  found  than 
in  Persia.  Beginning  with  the  lion  and  tiger,  one 
passes  to  our  northern  wolves,  bears,  squirrels,  pan- 
thers, leopards,  foxes,  hare,  jackals,  wild  sheep  and 
goats,  pigs,  porcupines  and  wild  asses.  The  feathered 
tribes,  too,  offer  a  large  variety,  among  them  being  pheas- 
ants, several  species  of  partridge,  duck  during  the  winter 
migration,  bustards,  quail,  swan  and  snipe  that  winter 
in  southern  Persia.  The  nobles  and  rich  Persians  do  not 
care  for  sport  with  gun  and  dogs,  that  demands  tramping 
and  fatigue.  They  wish  a  certain  comfort  and  "  tashak- 
huss,"  pomp.  They  never  go  alone,  but  are  accompanied 
by  numbers  of  servants.  The  shah  often  took  four  hun- 
dred to  five  hundred  men  with  him  on  his  hunting  ex- 
peditions. A  rich  Persian  takes  as  many  as  twenty  to 
forty  followers  or  more.  They  go  with  dogs  or  falcons, 
or  with  beaters  and  dogs. 

The  spring  and  late  autumn  are  the  best  time  for 
shooting,  as  at  these  seasons  the  game  descends  from  the 
mountains  into  the  more  accessible  valleys  and  plains, 
where  they  can  find  food  when  the  mountains  are  yet 
covered  with  snow.  At  such  seasons  the  Persians  often 
camp  out,  occasionally  accompanied  by  the  harem.  The 
shah  has  special  preserves  where  he  often  goes  for  ten 
days  or  more. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  hounds,  "  taze,"  in  Per- 
sia, the  most  valuable  being  the  so-called  Arabian  bred, 
with  fine  short  hair  and  small  pointed  ears  covered  with 


422        LIFE  IN  THE  MOSLEM   EAST 

tufts  of  long  hair,  as  is  the  tail,  something  like  those  of  a 
setter.  Next  to  these  in  the  eastern  part  of  Persia  are 
esteemed  the  Turkoman  hounds.  After  the  taking  of 
Geog  Tepe  a  number  of  hounds  of  this  breed  were 
brought  into  Russia  by  our  officers. 

Falcon  hunting  begins  in  the  spring  when  the  young 
birds  are  large  enough.  The  sportsmen  go  out  on  horse- 
back, the  hooded  falcons  being  carried  on  the  wrist  of  the 
keepers,  who  wear  gloves,  while  others  lead  the  dogs,  and 
the  dogs  being  loosed  the  hoods  are  removed  from  the 
birds.  As  soon  as  th'e  dogs  raise  a  bird  a  falcon  is  let 
fly,  the  horseman  following  its  flight  as  closely  as  possible 
to  take  the  game  from  the  claws  of  the  falcon.  The 
largest  falcons  or  hawks  are  used  for  hunting  the  wild 
goats,  whose  eyes  the  bird  tries  at  once  to  destroy.  Hares 
are  also  hunted  with  birds. 

The  training  of  falcons  is  quite  an  art,  requiring  aside 
from  knowledge  great  pains  and  patience.  The  greatest 
difficulty  is  to  teach  the  bird  not  to  fly  away  when  once  it 
has  reached  its  prize,  but  to  wait  to  be  caught  by  its  mas- 
ter. The  bird  is  snared  when  young  and  is  at  first  kept 
chained  to  a  perch,  the  head  covered  with  a  hood  that  is 
only  removed  to  feed  it  with  raw  meat.  During  the 
feeding  the  bird  is  taught  its  master's  voice  by  repeating 
to  it  over  and  over  the  same  word.  The  next  step  in  the 
training  is  letting  it  fly  within  the  limits  of  its  chain  onto 
a  small  bird  or  animal  that  is  also  tied  within  the  circle. 
All  this  time  the  same  word  is  being  repeated.  When  the 
hawk  seizes  its  prey  the  trainer  catches  it,  still  talking  to 
it,  and  gives  it  as  a  reward  a  part  of  its  victim.  As  soon  as 
the  hawk  does  this  without  showing  any  attempt  to  es- 
cape, it  is  considered  ready  to  take  on  a  real  hunt. 

Falcon-keeping  is  the  most  expensive  form  of  sport, 
as  each  bird  has  its  own  keeper  and  horse.  As  they  soon 
lose  their  health  and  spirit  if  confined  in  one  place  the 
hawks  are  constantly  taken  on  "  walks,"  and  it  is  a  com- 


THE   PERSIAN   AT   HOME  423 

mon  sight  to  see  a  man  sauntering  through  the  bazaars 
and  streets  with  a  bird  perched  on  his  hand,  that  in  its 
solemn  way  seems  to  take  an  interest  in  all  the  street  sights. 
Although  a  strong  bird  and  one  enduring  great  fatigue 
in  flight,  the  hawk  is  very  delicate  when  in  confinement 
and  needs  the  most  careful  and  experienced  care  to  keep 
it  alive  and  in  good  spirits. 

In  some  parts  of  Persia  tigers  used  to  abound,  and 
sometimes  daring  sportsmen  would  watch  their  chance 
of  stealing  the  young.  I  knew  one  man  who  had  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  away  from  the  den  unnoticed  with 
a  cub  in  his  hands.  The  tigress,  however,  got  on  his 
track,  and  he  saved  his  life  only  by  throwing  the  young 
one  down,  which  the  mother  at  once  picked  up,  as  a  cat 
would  her  kitten,  and  bounded  off  with  it.  The  fright- 
ened hunter  climbed  the  nearest  tree,  where  he  stayed  all 
night,  not  daring  to  resume  his  way  for  fear  the  mother 
might  follow  and  take  revenge. 

I  shall  notice  in  passing  two  forms  of  sport  that  are 
interesting  in  their  originality.  One  is  employed  in  fol- 
lowing the  mountain  partridge  that  is  found  on  the  slopes 
of  rocky  hills.  The  hunter  makes  a  shield-like  frame 
almost  his  own  height.  This  he  covers  with  a  white  cloth 
on  which  are  stuck  bits  of  bright-coloured  rags.  Two 
holes  are  made  at  the  right  height  for  his  eyes,  and  hold- 
ing the  shield  before  him  the  sportsman  goes  towards  the 
birds.  The  partridge,  being  of  an  exceedingly  inquisitive 
turn  of  mind,  at  once  stops  to  have  a  good  look  at  the 
strange  object,  stretching  out  its  neck  and  cocking  its 
head  with  every  sign  of  interest.  In  this  way  the  sports- 
man can  often  get  within  fifteen  to  twenty  paces  of  the 
birds.  I  must  confess,  however,  that  my  own  attempts 
with  this  form  of  shooting  were  failures,  possibly  from 
want  of  practice  in  managing  the  shield. 

Another  method  is  adopted  by  which  quails  are  taken 
alive.  In  the  springtime,  as  the  fields  become  green  with 


424        LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

the  sprouting  grain  and  the  lucerne  is  in  leaf,  the  quails 
come  down  to  the  plain  in  great  numbers.  The  sports- 
man then  arms  himself  with  a  net,  a  long-necked  empty 
gourd,  and  a  framework  that  is  attached  to  his  shoulders 
and  rises  as  a  sort  of  winged  hood  high  over  his  head. 
The  shape  of  this  framework  is  such  that  the  shadow  cast 
resembles  that  of  a  huge  bird  of  prey  on  the  wing.  Walk- 
ing slowly  through  the  fields  with  the  sun  behind  him, 
the  shadow  falling  in  front,  deceives  the  quails,  and  they, 
taking  it  for  a  bird  on  watch  for  them,  crouch  down  on 
the  ground  quite  heedless  of  the  approaching  steps.  Thus 
it  is  easy  to  cast  the  net  and  to  put  the  bird  alive  into  the 
gourd,  that  has  little  holes  in  its  sides  for  air.  In  this 
way  quails  are  regularly  brought  for  sale  to  the  bazaars 
alive  in  gourds. 

Shooting  over  the  hills  is  very  fatiguing  to  one  unac- 
customed to  mountain  climbing,  especially  as  dogs  are 
of  little  use,  the  birds  not  allowing  them  to  get  within 
shot. 

In  many  of  the  reedy  and  wooded  parts  of  Persia  are 
large  droves  of  wild  pigs.  Mohamm/edans  do  not  kill 
them  except  in  self-defence,  and  they  are  sometimes 
obliged  to  organise  a  hunt  on  droves  that  damage  the 
crops.  In  such  cases  the  animals  are  killed,  but  left  un- 
touched on  the  spot. 

In  conclusion  I  must  mention  one  other  sport  that  forms 
at  the  same  time  one  of  the  few  popular  entertainments 
or,  more  properly,  sights,  and  these  are  the  races.  They 
are  held  in  Teheran  and  sometimes  in  some  other  large 
cities  where  there  are  princes  or  nobles  addicted  to  the 
sport.  I  shall  here  describe  the  races  held  in  Teheran 
during  the  celebration  of  No-ruz  festival,  that  generally 
takes  place  the  ist  of  April. 

Two  or  three  months  in  advance  the  princes,  nobles 
and  private  individuals  who  have  horses  to  enter,  begin 


THE   PERSIAN   AT   HOME  425 

to  train  them  in  a  way  peculiar  to  that  country.  The 
horses  are  completely  covered  with  thick  felts,  only  their 
feet  and  head  showing,  and  every  day  in  this  garb  they 
are  taken  out  at  a  slow  walk.  Each  day  the  distance  is 
increased,  until  finally  they  are  kept  going  all  day.  Dur- 
ing this  time  the  horses  are  fed  little  and  allowed  to  lie 
down  but  two  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four.  Under  this 
regime  they  are  in  a  constant  lather  of  sweat,  and  become 
so  thin  that  when  the  time  for  running  arrives  they  are 
little  more  than  bones,  muscles  and  skin.  The  races  are 
held  just  outside  of  the  city  on  an  elliptical  race  course 
giving  a  little  less  than  two  miles'  run.  On  the  north 
side  is  thrown  up  a  building  in  the  shape  of  a  two-storied 
house  with  open  rooms  facing  the  track.  These  form 
boxes  for  the  shah,  ministers  and  diplomatic  corps. 

The  hippodrome  is  surrounded  by  two  parallel  walls, 
between  which  is  the  race  course,  a  road  about  eighty-four 
feet  wide.  Often  from  eighty  to  a  hundred  horses  are 
entered  for  the  race,  which  are  divided  according  to  their 
prowess  into  four  groups.  There  are  no  rules  regulating 
the  size,  age  nor  breed  of  the  horses,  nor  are  there  any 
governing  the  weight  of  the  jockeys.  The  latter  are, 
however,  generally  boys  dressed  in  different  coloured 
shirts.  As  sometimes  the  boys  are  unable  to  stick  on  in 
the  swiftness  of  the  race,  they  are  not  unfrequently 
strapped  to  the  saddle!  This,  of  course,  is  usually  fol- 
lowed with  fatal  results  if  the  horse  falls. 

The  first  group  of  horses  makes  the  round  of  the  course 
six  times,  or  about  ten  miles.  During  the  races  of  1883 
the  first  horse  arrived  at  the  post  in  thirty-one  minutes 
and  some  seconds,  and  another  was  one  head  behind,  while 
several  others  came  up  a  few  seconds  later.  The  remain- 
ing ten  or  twelve  horses  were  several  rods  behind.  The 
first  group  made  the  best  speed.  The  second  lot  of  horses 
ran  five  rounds  in  twenty-two  minutes;  the  third,  four 


426         LIFE   IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

rounds  in  fifteen  minutes;  and  the  fourth,  three  rounds  in 
ten  minutes.  The  first  prize  for  the  first  group  of  horses 
was  one  hundred  tomans,  about  one  hundred  and  seventy 
dollars  according  to  the  rate  of  exchange  at  that  time. 
The  first  prize  for  the  second  group  was  seventy-five 
tomans,  the  third  and  fourth  fifty  tomans  each. 

Of  course  such  small  sums  can  in  no  way  compensate 
the  owner  for  his  expenses,  the  more  so  that  the  horses 
entered  are  generally  of  valuable  Arab  or  Turkoman 
breed.  A  Turkoman  horse  while  running  looks  exactly 
like  a  fine  hound,  but  in  spite  of  the  great  length  of  their 
stride  the  prizes  were  more  often  won  by  the  small  Arab 
horses. 

The  day  of  the  races  in  Teheran  is  a  great  event.  At 
nine  o'clock  in  the  morning  a  cannon  shot  is  heard  an- 
nouncing the  departure  of  the  shah,  and  all  Teheran 
pours  out  to  the  hippodrome  or  onto  such  of  the  flat 
roofs  that  may  overlook  the  race  course,  or  at  least  the 
streets  through  which  the  shah  and  the  troops  are  to 
pass,  for  a  parade  follows  the  races.  The  streets  are 
filled  with  people  on  foot,  on  horseback  and  in  carriages 
of  all  styles  and  periods,  from  the  most  old-fashioned 
chariots  to  the  elegant  landau  of  the  day.  Mixed  with 
the  horses  are  seen  the  "Camel  artillery" — cannon  car- 
ried on  camels'  backs.  These  go  out  to  the  parade 
ground,  and  the  cannon  are  placed  in  position,  the  camels 
lying  in  a  row  behind  them.  Other  cannon,  or  mountain 
guns,  are  carried  on  mules.  The  cavalry,  in  Cossack 
form,  and  finally  the  infantry  in  uniforms  imitating  those 
of  Austrian  regiments — all  this  forms  a  bright,  many-col- 
oured picture  moving  under  the  blue  sky. 

Opposite  to  the  shah's  box  are  two  bands,  one  of  Euro- 
pean music  directed  by  a  European,  and  the  other  of 
native  music,  with  dancing  boys  dressed  in  women's 
clothes.  Close  by  stands  an  elephant  with  a  small  pavil- 


THE   PERSIAN   AT   HOME  427 

ion  on  his  back  solemnly  swaying  his  great  trunk.  One 
by  one  the  horses  that  are  to  take  part  in  the  race  are  led 
before  the  shah,  the  master  of  ceremonies  giving  the 
name  of  its  owner  and  the  name,  age  and  qualities  of  the 
horse.  Then,  at  a  given  signal,  the  jockeys,  often  boys 
not  over  ten  to  eleven  years  of  age,  mount  the  horses, 
that,  scenting  the  race,  are  beginning  to  get  excited.  The 
relatives  of  the  jockeys  run  at  the  last  moment  to  tie 
amulets  on  their  left  arms  to  bring  them  luck.  Some- 
times the  same  boys  will  ride  in  the  several  successive 
groups  without  seeming  to  get  overtired. 

Water  carriers  with  skins  and  carrying  large  jugs  in 
their  hands  pour  cold  water  freely  over  the  heads  and 
croups  of  the  horses.  The  horses  get  into  line,  and  at  the 
signal  the  twenty  or  perhaps  more  steeds  break  into  a 
run  and  are  soon  lost  to  view  by  the  high  inner  wall  of 
the  hippodrome.  Sometimes  a  horse  that  has  run  before 
in  a  three-round  race  and  is  now  entered  for  four  or  more 
rounds  will,  on  completing  the  three  rounds,  break  for 
the  exit,  and  the  time  taken  to  turn  and  stop  him  loses  him 
his  place  in  the  race.  The  race  is  carried  on  in  an  utterly 
illegal  and  unsportsmanlike  manner  from  our  point  of 
view.  Sometimes  when  a  horse  belonging  to  a  private 
individual  of  little  consequence  is  seen  to  be  in  front, 
sand  is  thrown  in  its  eyes!  The  winner  of  the  prize,  re- 
ceiving his  money  in  a  bag,  places  it  on  his  head  and  goes 
to  one  side,  followed  by  congratulations.  The  horse  is 
at  once  unbitted,  his  girths  loosed,  and  he  is  led  about  to 
cool. 

After  the  races  are  completed  the  troops  pass  in  review 
before  the  shah,  and  then  in  the  same  order  march  back 
to  the  city. 

This  is  all  I  can  tell  of  Persian  entertainments  and 
amusements.  Not  many  nor  varied.  Of  amusements 
that  satisfy  the  artistic  sense  there  are  none.  Nor  does 


428         LIFE  IN   THE   MOSLEM    EAST 

the  Persian  in  his  present  state  of  development  demand 
them.  He  is  above  all  a  materialist.  Poets  delighting 
to  describe  roses,  nightingales,  brooks  and  streams,  do 
so  as  appreciating  them  as  accessories  to  "  caif/'  The 
Persian  loves  to  sit  on  the  shady  bank  of  a  stream  with 
his  pipe  and  tea,  or  a  picnic  lunch  cooked  on  the  spot, 
but  he  is  untouched  by  the  majesty  of  the  scenery  about 
him  and  the  real  beauties  that  nature  unfolds.  He  loves 
dancing,  yet  does  not  seek  for  the  graceful  but  the  sensual 
in  the  motions;  he  loves  story-tellers  that  lull  him  to 
sleep ;  he  loves  poetry,  but  not  so  much  for  the  thoughts 
or  inspirations  suggested  as  for  the  musical  sound  that 
caresses  his  ear  by  its  rhythm.  It  is  true  he  loves  a  "  tama- 
sha"  for  all  it  will  give  him,  but  further  than  this  he 
does  not  go,  and  to  spend  money  as  we  do  to  go  to  places 
of  amusementf  is  beyond  his  comprehension.  Several 
years  ago  a  circus  arrived  in  Persia.  It  was  supposed 
that  a  people  that  loved  horses  as  they  do  would  eagerly 
go  to  it,  but  the  attendance  was  so  small  that  the  enter- 
prise was  given  up  with  considerable  loss. 

Jugglers  have  more  success,  as  they  are  very  popular, 
but  even  they  when  invited  to  perform  have  trouble  in 
obtaining  their  money.  In  the  absence  of  theatres  or 
public  places  of  amusement,  Persians  of  means  hire 
jugglers,  dancers,  or  actors  to  their  houses,  promising 
them  a  certain  sum.  It,  however,  generally  ends  in  a  long 
bargaining,  when  finally  only  half  of  the  promised  sum 
is  paid  and  sometimes  none  at  all. 

Persians  seldom  take  walks,  and  in  the  case  of  those 
of  any  position  the  cause  of  their  not  doing  so  is  easily 
explained:  to  go  Hone  is  contrary  to  etiquette;  to  walk 
about  followed  by  a  crowd  of  servants  absurd.  Riding 
for  pleasure  is  also  less  indulged  in  than  one  would  think 
natural,  as  it  is  against  the  all-powerful  "  custom  "  for 
one  of  any  social  position  to  go  off  a  walk,  and  it  is  dull 


THE   PERSIAN   AT   HOME  429 

amusement  riding  at  such  a  slow  gait  surrounded  by  a 
body  of  horsemen.  The  only  diversion  on  their  rides 
is  caused  by  some  of  the  attendants  occasionally  breaking 
from  the  party  and  racing  their  horses  in  a  ploughed 
field,  making  curves,  and  sharp  tturns  that  they  love. 
Riding  is  more  frequently  indulged  in  during  the  feast 
of  Ramadan  as  one  of  the  means  of  killing  time  and  for- 
getting hunger. 

The  middle  classes  frequent  a  sort  of  gymnastic  organi- 
sation where  "  pehlawans,"  wrestlers,  give  lessons  in 
gymnastic  exercises  to  those  whose  physicians  have  or- 
dered such  treatment.  But  few  attend  from  a  mere  love 
of  exercise  or  sport. 


UNI 


* 


end  of  FALL  Quarter       UAN  3 


QEC131952LU 


JAM  9  1953  LU 


1962 


! 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


